Graphical illustration of an integrated information analysis in complex systems. Integrated information theory (IIT) can be used to analyze a wide range of complex systems from dynamical systems to cellular automata and empirical data (left). Due to the generality of information-theoretic measures, it can be applied to either real- or discrete-valued data. After a suitable statistical model has been estimated, the system is partitioned following Eq. (2), and effective information $φ$ is computed for each partition (middle). Finally, the partition with the “cruelest cut” (more formally, the minimum information partition) is selected, and the final value of integrated information Φ is computed (right).