Biologists have long dreamed of a microscope capable of imaging specimens in their natural state, at molecular or near‐molecular resolution. Physicists have for some years known that the soft‐x‐ray photon has properties that suit it for use as a probe in such microscopy. With the advent of synchrotron radiation sources, and with other technical advances, the difficulties that impeded the development of soft‐x‐ray microscopy have begun to give way, and in 1983 the technique produced the first images ever obtained of a living cell at a near‐molecular resolution of 75 Å.
REFERENCES
1.
The most useful current reference to the subject is G. Schmahl, D. Rudolph, eds., X‐Ray Microscopy, Springer‐Verlag, Berlin (1984).
This book contains descriptions of the systems in table 1: See D. Rudolph, B. Niemann, G. Schmahl, O. Christ, p. 192;
P. J. Duke, p. 232;
H. Rarback, J. M. Kenney, J. Kirz, M. R. Howells, P. Chang, P. J. Coane, R. Feder, P. J. Houzego, D. P. Kern, D. Sayre, p. 203;
B. Niemann, p. 217;
P. J. Duke, p. 232;
E. Spiller, p. 226;
A. Franks, B. Gale, p. 129;
F. Polack, S. Lowenthal, p. 251;
R. Feder, V. Mayne‐Banton, D. Sayre, J. Costa, B. K. Kim, M. G. Baldini, P. G. Cheng, p. 279.
See also
S.
Aoki
, Y.
Sakanayagi
in Ultrasoft X‐Ray Microscopy, D. F. Parsuns, ed., Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci.
342
, 158
(1980
). The resolution for the Tsukuba instrument cited in table 1 is from a recent personal communication from S. Aoki.2.
G. Schmahl, D. Rudolph, P. Guttmann, O. Christ, in G. Schmahl, D. Rudolph, eds., X‐Ray Microscopy, Springer‐Verlag, Berlin (1984) p. 63;
P. Guttmann, p. 75;
J. Thieme, p. 91.
3.
D. P.
Kern
, P. J.
Houzego
, P. J.
Coane
, T. H. P.
Chang
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol.
B1
, 1096
(1983
);D. C.
Shaver
, D. C.
Flanders
, N. M.
Ceglio
, H. I.
Smith
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol.
16
, 1626
(1979
);A. G.
Michette
, M. T.
Browne
, P.
Charalambous
, R. E.
Burge
, M. J.
Simpson
, P. J.
Duke
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol.
16
, 109
(1979
);E. Kratschmer, D. Stephani, H. Beneking in Microcircuit Engineering 83, H. Ahmed, J. R. A. Cleaver, G. A. C. Jones, eds., Academic, New York (1983) p. 15.
4.
G. Schmahl, D. Rudolph, B. Niemann in Scanned Image Microscopy, E. A. Ash, ed., Academic, New York (1980) p. 393;
W. B. Yun, M. R. Howells, Brookhaven Laboratory Technical Report No. 35628, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Brookhaven, New York (1985).
5.
D.
Rudolph
, B.
Niemann
, G.
Schmahl
in High Resolution Soft X‐Ray Optics, E. Spiller, ed., SPIE Proc.
316
, 103
(1981
).6.
7.
T. W. Barbee Jr, in G. Schmahl, D. Rudolph, eds., X‐Ray Microscopy, Springer‐Verlag, Berlin (1984) p. 144;
E. Spiller p 226.
8.
R.‐P.
Haelbich
, W.
Staehr
, C.
Kunz
in Ultrasoft X‐Ray Microscopy, D. F. Parsons, ed., Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci.
342
, 148
(1980
).9.
10.
11.
R.
Feder
, V.
Banton
, D.
Sayre
, J. L.
Costa
, M. G.
Baldini
, B. K.
Kim
, Science
227
, 63
(1985
).12.
See PHYSICS TODAY, March, p. 17;
D. L.
Matthews
, P. L.
Hagelstein
, M. D.
Rosen
, M. J.
Eckart
, N. M.
Ceglio
, A. U.
Hazi
, H.
Medecki
, B. J.
MacGowan
, J. E.
Trebes
, B. L.
Whitten
, E. M.
Campbell
, C. W.
Hatcher
, A. M.
Hawryluk
, R. L.
Kauffman
, L. D.
Pleasance
, G.
Rambach
, J. H.
Scofield
, G.
Stone
, T. A.
Weaver
, Phys. Rev. Lett.
54
, 110
(1985
).13.
D. J.
Nagel
, in Ultraviolet and Vacuum Ultraviolet Systems, W. R. Hunter, ed., SPIE Proc.
279
, 98
(1981
).Pulsed radiation sources based on the plasma z‐pinch are commercially available from Maxwell Laboratories in San Diego, Calif., and Physics International Co in San Leandro, Calif. Small sources based on laser‐produced plasmas are available from XMR Inc in Santa Clara, Calif.
14.
15.
M. R. Howells, in G. Schmahl, D. Rudolph, eds., X‐Ray Microscopy, Springer‐Verlag, Berlin (1984) p. 318;
M. R.
Howells
, M.
Iarocci
, J.
Kenney
, J.
Kirz
, H.
Rarback
, in Science with Soft X‐Rays, F. J. Himpsel, R. W. Klaffky, eds., SPIE Proc.
447
, 193
(1983
).16.
S.
Aoki
, S.
Kikuta
, Japan. J. App. Phys.
13
, 1385
(1974
). Aoki informs us that Gabor x‐ray holograms are now being recorded with an undulator at the Photon Factory at Tsukuba.17.
This possibility was discussed in D. Sayre, R.‐P. Haelbich, J. Kirz, W. B. Yun, in G. Schmahl, D. Rudolph, eds., X‐ray Microscopy, Springer‐Verlag, Berlin (1984) p. 314.
18.
19.
J. M.
Kenney
, C.
Jacobsen
, J.
Kirz
, H.
Rarback
, F.
Cinotti
, W.
Thomlinson
, R.
Rosser
, G.
Schidlowsky
, J. Microsc.
138
, No. 3
(June 1985
).20.
V. E. Cosslett, W. C. Nixon, X‐Ray Microscopy, Cambridge U.P. (1960).
21.
22.
23.
A. V.
Baez
, 51
, 405
(1961
).
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