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It is common for physics and physical science teachers to avoid the subject of magnetism because they are not comfortable with it. There are at least two obstacles that contribute to this discomfort. The first is that much of the magnetic phenomena that can be investigated in a school laboratory is counter-intuitive. In particular, action-at-a-distance effects and forces are often produced in unexpected directions. Given time, a teacher could produce experiments that would help students around this first obstacle if it wasn’t for the perceived dangers of such experiments. This is the second obstacle. The study of magnetism can, but need not, involve the use of dangerous amounts of electrical energy.

It is common for physics and physical science teachers to avoid the subject of magnetism because they are not comfortable with it. There are at least two obstacles that contribute to this discomfort. The first is that much of the magnetic phenomena that can be investigated in a school laboratory is counter-intuitive. In particular, action-at-a-distance effects and forces are often produced in unexpected directions. Given time, a teacher could produce experiments that would help students around this first obstacle if it wasn’t for the perceived dangers of such experiments. This is the second obstacle. The study of magnetism can, but need not, involve the use of dangerous amounts of electrical energy.

Fortunately, neither of these obstacles is difficult to overcome. Since the counter-intuitive aspects of magnetism do not involve effects frequently observed by students, most student preconceptions are not as firmly held as are those in mechanics. Those preconceptions that do exist can usually be clearly contrasted with the results of experiments which often are so different from expectations that students welcome alternative models and explanations. The second obstacle, the dangers in the use of electricity, can be completely avoided by the use of batteries and the construction of simple pieces of equipment that require little use of energy.

The demonstrations and experiments described in this book have been developed over many years. They involve cheap and simple materials that are commonly available and easy to put together. As much as possible, construction should be done by the students, but its always a good idea to build your own version so that you have a feeling for any difficulties students might have.

The workshop and teaching approach that is suggested is based on my personal observations and research concerning the decisive role that expectations have on our perceptions. Students and workshop participants should often be asked to think about, and preferably put into writing, what they expect to happen before they do an experiment or a demonstration. This approach is becoming more common, but I believe that it does not go far enough. To complete the process students should be asked to suggest alternatives to their expectations.1 This is based on the observation that when a person has a strong expectation of a result, he or she is likely to see this result or one very similar to it even when it does not occur! On the other hand when expectations are made more general by the consideration of alternatives, it becomes more likely that the observer will accurately perceive the effects. Another aspect of this approach is that the first investigations should be qualitative rather than quantitative. Then, as the student has more experience with the phenomena, it becomes appropriate to ask for more detailed, therefore quantitative, hypotheses, and at this level the teacher should be prepared to advance some of these detailed hypotheses or to assist students in refining their own. Hypotheses that might be suggested to students will appear with the workshop activities.

I. Tell the participants that it is important that students express their hypotheses and consider alternate hypotheses before doing experiments. Brainstorming is an effective way to do this.

II. Time permitting, cover the following Laboratory Activities. Note that the introduction to the set is in the first activity. This is useful for students, but the activity is probably too elementary to cover with teachers in your workshop.

LABORATORY ACTIVITY 2: Seeing Magnetic Fields

This can be done along with Demonstrations and Displays #6 (A Two Dimensional Magnetic Field Viewer) and #3 (A Three Dimensional Magnetic Field Viewer).

LABORATORY ACTIVITY 3: How are Magnetic Fields Produced?

If you are emphasizing qualitative activities, you may want to present only the first part.

LABORATORY ACTIVITY 4: Penetration of Magnetic Fields through Matter

Due to time limitations in a workshop, ask participants to try some of this while doing the previous two activities.

LABORATORY ACTIVITY 5: Electromagnets

LABORATORY ACTIVITY 7: Magnetic Forces on Current Carrying Wires

LABORATORY ACTIVITY 8: Magnetic Forces on Moving Charges

LABORATORY ACTIVITY 11: A Model of Magnetic Domains

LABORATORY ACTIVITY 12: Long Range Repulsion, Short Range Attraction

III. Set up any of the DEMONSTRATIONS AND DISPLAYS that you have materials for. These can be viewed as participants arrive and at lunch time.

IV. You may want to demonstrate PHYSICS CONTEST EVENT #2 (Magnetic Push).

Item # needed per group Activity# used in 
Soft iron bar magnet 1, 2, 4, 7, 8 
 
Magnetic marbles 1, 2, 4, 10 
 
 12 or more 11 
Glass marbles a few 11 
Horseshoe magnet 1, 2, 4, 7 
Neodymium magnets 12 
Various magnets  4, 7 
Strong l"x2" flat magnets 1 or 2 10, 11 
Pieces of copper wire 1 or more 1, 5 
Iron filings or powder sprinkling 1, 2, 10 
Paper clips 1 or 2 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 9, 10 
 about 10 
Bits of wood and plastic 1 of each 
Nails 1, 4, 5, 10 
Aluminum foil 1 sheet 1, 4 
Water  1, 4, 9 
Sand, salt and coins  
Small blocks or sheet of glass 1, 4 
Sheets of paper several 1, 2, 3, 4, 7 
Sheets of thin cardboard 1 or 2 
Corrugated cardboard 2 of 5cm × 10cm 
Small magnetic compass 2, 3, 4, 6, 11 
Tall jars (such as olive jars) or 
graduated cylinders 2,4 
Balloon 1 or 2 2,4 
Vegetable or mineral oil  2,4 
String  2, 4, 7 
Magnet wire - the thinnest 2 - 4 meters 3, 5, 7, 8 
available   
Sand paper or steel wool  3,5 
Wire cutters 3, 5 
Knife 
Strong soda straw or the wrapped 
glass tube from a Project Physics   
or PSSC Centripetal   
Force Apparatus   

Shoe box, 2 liter soda bottle or a block of wood at least 20 cm high

 

1

 

3

 

Protractor

 

1

 

3

 

Ring stands and clamps

 

2

 

3, 4, 5, 6, 7

 

C or D cell batteries

 

2

 

3, 4, 5, 7

 

A battery pack

 

1

 

3, 5, 7

 

9 volt batteries

 

2

 

5, 8, 9, 11

 

The apparatus constructed for Activity 3

 

1

 

4, 7

 

Small wood sheets

 

1

 

4

 

Large beaker

 

1

 

4, 9, 11

 

Soda straw

 
 

5

 

Tooth picks

 

a few

 

5

 

Rubber bands

 

2

 

5

 

Sticky tape

 
 

5, 7

 

Ring stand rod or other long steel rod

 

1

 

6, 12

 

Solenoid

 

1

 

6, 8, 9, 11

 

Low voltage DC power supply (6 - 20 volts maximum)

 

1

 

6, 8, 11

 

Oscilloscope

 

1

 

8

 

Sewing needle

 

1

 

9

 

Thread

 
 

9

 

Cork

 
 

9

 

Magic marker

 

1

 

11

 

Small cardboard or plastic lids and/or boxes

 

several

 

11

 

Small paper clip box

 

1

 

11

 

Steel nuts 0.25” thick

 

2

 

12

 

Steel ball bearing 0.5” diam.

 

1

 

12

 
Item # needed per group Activity# used in 
Soft iron bar magnet 1, 2, 4, 7, 8 
 
Magnetic marbles 1, 2, 4, 10 
 
 12 or more 11 
Glass marbles a few 11 
Horseshoe magnet 1, 2, 4, 7 
Neodymium magnets 12 
Various magnets  4, 7 
Strong l"x2" flat magnets 1 or 2 10, 11 
Pieces of copper wire 1 or more 1, 5 
Iron filings or powder sprinkling 1, 2, 10 
Paper clips 1 or 2 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 9, 10 
 about 10 
Bits of wood and plastic 1 of each 
Nails 1, 4, 5, 10 
Aluminum foil 1 sheet 1, 4 
Water  1, 4, 9 
Sand, salt and coins  
Small blocks or sheet of glass 1, 4 
Sheets of paper several 1, 2, 3, 4, 7 
Sheets of thin cardboard 1 or 2 
Corrugated cardboard 2 of 5cm × 10cm 
Small magnetic compass 2, 3, 4, 6, 11 
Tall jars (such as olive jars) or 
graduated cylinders 2,4 
Balloon 1 or 2 2,4 
Vegetable or mineral oil  2,4 
String  2, 4, 7 
Magnet wire - the thinnest 2 - 4 meters 3, 5, 7, 8 
available   
Sand paper or steel wool  3,5 
Wire cutters 3, 5 
Knife 
Strong soda straw or the wrapped 
glass tube from a Project Physics   
or PSSC Centripetal   
Force Apparatus   

Shoe box, 2 liter soda bottle or a block of wood at least 20 cm high

 

1

 

3

 

Protractor

 

1

 

3

 

Ring stands and clamps

 

2

 

3, 4, 5, 6, 7

 

C or D cell batteries

 

2

 

3, 4, 5, 7

 

A battery pack

 

1

 

3, 5, 7

 

9 volt batteries

 

2

 

5, 8, 9, 11

 

The apparatus constructed for Activity 3

 

1

 

4, 7

 

Small wood sheets

 

1

 

4

 

Large beaker

 

1

 

4, 9, 11

 

Soda straw

 
 

5

 

Tooth picks

 

a few

 

5

 

Rubber bands

 

2

 

5

 

Sticky tape

 
 

5, 7

 

Ring stand rod or other long steel rod

 

1

 

6, 12

 

Solenoid

 

1

 

6, 8, 9, 11

 

Low voltage DC power supply (6 - 20 volts maximum)

 

1

 

6, 8, 11

 

Oscilloscope

 

1

 

8

 

Sewing needle

 

1

 

9

 

Thread

 
 

9

 

Cork

 
 

9

 

Magic marker

 

1

 

11

 

Small cardboard or plastic lids and/or boxes

 

several

 

11

 

Small paper clip box

 

1

 

11

 

Steel nuts 0.25” thick

 

2

 

12

 

Steel ball bearing 0.5” diam.

 

1

 

12

 
1

For example, Gerrit L. Verschuur in Hidden Attraction: The History and Mystery of Magnetism suggests that a number of other investigators might have beaten Oersted to the discovery that electric currents produce magnetic field except that their expectations of a specific result caused them all to orient their compass needles perpendicular to their wires, that is, in the direction that the magnetic field produced by the wire must have acted.

The following bibliography contains the books that I have referred to for ideas in teaching magnetism.
Burke
,
Harry E.
,
Handbook of Magnetic Phenomena
,
Van Nostrand Reinhold Company
,
1986
.
Campbell
,
Peter
,
Permanent Magnet Materials and Their Design
,
Cambridge University Press
,
1994
.
Chabay
Ruth
&
Sherwood
,
Bruce
,
Electric and Magnetic Interactions
,
Wiley, New York
,
1995
.
Conner
,
Donna Berry
,
A Potpouri of Physics Teaching Ideas, AAPT
,
1987
.
Edge
,
R. D.
,
String & Sticky Tape EXPERIMENTS, AAPT
,
1981
.
Epstein
,
L. C.
,
Thinking Physics
2nd Ed.,
Insight Press
, 614 Vermont Street,
San Francisco, CA
94107
,
1989
.
Feynman
,
R. P.
,
The Feynman
Lectures on Physics, Volume II, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.
,
1964
.
Freier
,
G.D.
and
Anderson
,
F.J.
,
A Demonstration Handbook for Physics
, 2nd Ed.,
AAPT
,
1981
.
Jackson
,
John D.
,
Classical Electrodynamics
,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
,
New York and London
,
1967
.
Jefimenko
,
O. D.
,
Electricity and Magnetism
,
Meredith Publishing Company
,
1966
.
Meiners
,
Harry F.
,
Physics Demonstration Experiments - Vol. II, AAPT 1970 Out of Print
.
Purcell
,
Edward M.
,
Electricity and Magnetism, Berkeley Physics Course
-Volume
2
,
McGraw-Hill Book Company
,
1985
.
Verschuur
,
Gerrit L.
,
Hidden Attraction: The History and Mystery of Magnetism
,
Oxford University Press
,
1993
.
Walker
,
Jearl
,
The Flying Circus of Physics With Answers
,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
,
New York and London
,
1977
.

Magnetism article citations from THE PHYSICS TEACHER 1979-1995

A. R.
Quinton
The ac repulsion demonstration of Elihu Thomson
.
17
(
1
)
Jan
1979
,
40
J. L.
Ferguson
Turn-by-turn transformer demonstration
.
17
(
1
)
Jan
1979
,
59
M.
Iona
Would you believe …? (Magnetic fields of currents)
.
17
(
1
)
Jan
1979
,
38
Hydrogen diamagnetism
.
17
(
2
)
Feb
1979
,
101
H.
Manos
A simple demonstration of induction
, emf…
17
(
2
)
Feb
1979
,
112
Questions students ask
(
What’s the difference between magnetic induction and magnetic field intensity?
).
17
(
2
)
Feb
1979
,
126
R.
Gagnon
Magnetic mirror: a visual demonstration
.
17
(
8
)
Nov
1979
,
529
J.
Pierrus
&
M. M.
Michaelis
Demonstration of coupled oscillations using permanent magnets
.
18
(
1
)
Jan
1980
,
39
Questions students ask
(
How does an electron create magnetism?
).
18
(
6
)
Sept
1980
,
478
J. M.
Piowaty
A simple magnetic force experiment
.
18
(
8
)
Nov
1980
,
598
W.
Eppenstein
&
S.
Maleki
Magnetic hysteresis on the overhead projector
.
18
(
8
)
Nov
1980
,
614
String and sticky tape experiments
(
Experiments with nickels and magnets
).
19
(
2
)
Feb
1981
,
124
G.P.
Lasche
Magnetic confinement of fusion plasmas
.
19
(
4
)
April
1981
,
234
D. E.
Kelly
The electro-magnetically damped mechanical oscillator
.
19
(
5
)
May
1981
,
327
Questions students ask
(
Why are so few substances ferromagnetic?
).
20
(
3
)
March
1982
,
183
J. J.
Braun
TEL-Atomic magnetic bubble apparatus - an evaluation
.
20
(
5
)
May
1982
,
330
S.
Starling
The manufacturer comments
.
20
(
5
)
May
1982
,
333
W.
DeBuvitz
Interesting student answers II (how to identify a magnet)
.
21
(
2
)
Feb
1983
,
110
S. B.
Felch
Searches for magnetic monopoles and fractional electric charge
.
22
(
3
)
March
1984
,
142
J.
Williams
Doing physics -- (Electromagnetic fun)
.
22
(
4
)
April
1984
,
254
D.C.
Henry
Will lightning erase magnetic tapes?
23
(
4
)
April
1985
,
233
H.H.
Kolm
Questions students ask (Does the earth’s field concentrate oxygen?
23
(
4
)
April
1985
,
236
A.
Schmidt
Doing physics (Magnetic forces)
.
23
(
6
)
Sept
1985
,
375
J. S.
Rno
Magnetic Field Lines on the Factory Floor
.
24
(
4
)
April
1986
,
225
W.
Connolly
, Ed.
Apparatus for Teaching Physics (Measuring the Earth’s Magnetic Field in an Introductory Laboratory with a Spinning Coil)
.
24
(
7
)
Oct
1986
,
423
J. W.
Ecklin
(
Letters) More on Magnetic Forces
.
25
(
2
)
Feb
1987
,
73
B.
Bernero
A Demonstration of Magnetic Force upon a Current-Carrying Wire
.
25
(
2
)
Feb
1987
,
88
E.
Morgan
Magnetohydrodynamics on a Tabletop
.
25
(
5
)
May
1987
,
325
T. B.
Gabrielson
Apparatus Oatmeal-Box Magnetometer
.
25
(
7
)
Oct
1987
,
448
H.
Balfour
Doing Physics (Dipole Repulsion)
.
25
(
7
)
Oct
1987
,
470
R. C.
Turner
A Physics Toy: Magnetic Seal and Ball
.
25
(
9
)
Dec
1987
,
568
G.
Faucher
Ferromagnetism and the Secret Agent
.
26
(
1
)
Jan
1988
,
30
H. R.
Crane
How Things Work (A Magnetic Compass with No Moving Parts)
.
26
(
1
)
Jan
1988
,
53
D. G.
Haase
About Magnetized Needles and Magnetic Field Lines
.
27
(
5
)
May
1989
,
387
G.
Darakjian
Doing Physics (The Right-Hand Rule Made Visible?)
27
(
9
)
Dec
1989
,
684
R.
Ehrich
Three Mechanical Demonstrations of Chaos
.
28
(
1
)
Jan
1990
,
26
R
Chasnov
&
L.
Overcast
Magnetic Symmetry and Newton’s Third Law
.
28
(
2
)
Feb
1990
,
112
A.
Zhong
Apparatus (Determine the Magnetic Induction of a Coil with a Hall Element
).
28
(
2
)
Feb
1990
,
123
P. J.
Ouseph
Levitation of a Magnet over a Superconductor
.
28
(
4
)
April
1990
,
205
D.
Austen
&
W.
Brouwer
A Superconductivity Workshop
.
28
(
4
)
April
1990
,
232
W. G.
Delinger
Magnetic Field Inside a Hole in a Conductor
.
28
(
4
)
April
1990
,
234
J. A. M.
Clack
&
T. P.
Toepker
Magnetic Induction Experiment
.
28
(
4
)
April
1990
,
236
G.P.
Johnson
Magnetic Field Visualization on the Overhead Projector
.
28
(
4
)
April
1990
,
244
M.
Wake
Floating Magnet Demonstration
.
28
(
6
)
Sept
1990
,
395
S.
Van Wyk
Physics Problems for Physics Teachers - Superconductivity
.
28
(
9
)
Dec
1990
,
621
R. E.
Benenson
Demonstration of Magnetic Images
.
29
(
1
)
Jan
1991
,
54
S.
Lagan
Deck the Halls (A Simple Hallway Demonstration of Chaos)
.
29
(
7
)
Oct
1991
,
461
T. D.
Rossing
&
J. R.
Hull
Magnetic Levitation
.
29
(
9
)
Dec
1991
,
552
H. R.
Crane
How Things Work (Magnetic Levitation (Almost))
.
30
(
9
)
Dec
1992
,
540
R. L.
Taylor
Focusing Electron Beams at SLAC
.
31
(
1
)
Jan
1993
,
18
R.
Romer
Oersted on the Subway
.
31
(
2
)
Feb
1993
,
92
C. A.
Brueningsen
Investigating Magnetic Oscillations
.
31
(
3
)
March
1993
,
184
D.
Kagan
Building a Magnetic Levitation Toy
.
31
(
7
)
Oct
1993
,
432
P. B.
Robinson
Oersteds in the Hydrolytic Plant
.
32
(
1
)
Jan
1994
,
57
Chin-Shan
Lue
A Direct Method for Viewing Ferromagnetic Phase Transition
.
32
(
5
)
May
1994
,
304
R.
Simmonds
,
K.
Browning
,
A.
Rinker
,
T.
Gastouniotis
&
D.
Ion
Demonstrating Paramagnetism using Liquid Nitrogen
.
32
(
6
)
Sept
1994
,
374
J. H.
Clemmons
&
R. H.
Evans
Auroral Measurements from Space Brought into the Classroom
.
33
(
1
)
Jan
1995
,
34
R. C.
Nicklin
&
R.
Miller
Using Magnetic Switches in Motion Experiments
.
33
(
2
)
Feb
1995
,
118
R.
Edge
Levitation Using Only Permanent Magnets
.
33
(
4
)
April
1995
,
252
W.
Herreman
&
R.
Huysentruyt
Measuring the Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor
.
33
(
5
)
May
1995
,
288

Magnetism article citations from SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 1955-1995

R. M.
Bozorth
Magnetic Materials
.
Jan
1955
,
68
S. K.
Runcorn
The Earth’s Magnetism
.
Sept
1955
,
152
B. T.
Matthias
Superconductivity
.
Nov
1957
,
92
Furth
,
H. P.
,
Levine
,
M. A.
&
Waniek
,
R. W.
Strong Magnetic Fields
.
Feb
1958
,
28
H. W.
Babcock
The Magnetism of the Sun
.
Feb
1960
,
52
K. A.
Anderson
Solar Particles and Cosmic Rays
.
June
1960
,
64
C. L.
Hogan
Ferrites
.
June
1960
,
92
J. T.
Wilson
Continental Drift
.
April
1963
,
86
Kolm
,
H. H.
&
Freeman
,
A. J.
Intense Magnetic Fields
.
April
1965
,
66
Berge
,
G. L.
&
Seielstad
,
G. A.
The Magnetic Field of the Galaxy
.
June
1965
,
46
F.
Bitter
Ultrastrong Magnetic Fields
.
July
1965
,
64
W. C.
Livingston
Magnetic Fields on the Quiet Sun
.
Nov
1966
,
64
Sampson
,
W. B.
,
Craig
,
P. P.
&
Strongin
,
M.
Advances in Superconducting Magnets
.
March
1967
,
114
J. J.
Becker
Permanent Magnets
.
Dec
1970
,
92
Trauble
,
H.
&
Essmann
,
U.
The Magnetic Structure of Superconductors
.
March
1971
,
74
Dyal
,
P.
&
Parkin
,
C. W.
The Magnetism of the Moon
.
Aug
1971
,
62
Heirtzler
,
J. R.
&
Bryan
,
W. B.
The Floor of the Mid-Atlantic Rift
.
Aug
1975
,
78
E. N.
Parker
The Sun
.
Sept
1975
,
42
Kolm
,
H.
,
Oberteuffer
,
J.
&
Kelland
,
D.
High-Gradient Magnetic Separation
.
Nov
1975
,
46
Carrigan
,
C. R.
&
Gubbins
,
D.
The Source of the Earth’s Magnetic Field
.
Feb
1979
,
118
Blakemore
,
R. P.
&
Frankel
,
R. B.
Magnetic Navigation in Bacteria
.
Dec
1981
,
58
Jones
,
D. L.
,
Cox
,
A.
,
Coney
,
P.
&
Beck
,
M
The Growth of Western North America
.
Nov
1982
,
70
E. N.
Parker
Magnetic Fields in the Cosmos
.
Aug
1983
,
44
P.
Chaudhari
Electronic and Magnetic Materials
.
Oct
1986
,
136
S. K.
Runcorn
The Moon’s Ancient Magnetism
.
Dec
1987
,
60
K. A.
Hoffman
Ancient Magnetic Reversals: Clues to the Geodynamo
.
May
1988
,
76
Bishop
,
D. J.
,
Gammel
,
P. L.
&
Huse
,
D. A.
Resistance in High-Temperature Superconductors
.
Feb
1993
,
48
Boebinger
,
G.
,
Passner
,
A.
&
Bevk
,
J.
Building World-Record Magnets
.
June
1995
,
58
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