Robust informative acoustic predictions require precise knowledge of ocean physics, bathymetry, seabed, and acoustic parameters. However, in realistic applications, this information is uncertain due to sparse and heterogeneous measurements and complex ocean physics. Efficient techniques are thus needed to quantify these uncertainties and predict the stochastic acoustic wave fields. In this work, we derive and implement new stochastic differential equations that predict the acoustic pressure fields and their probability distributions. We start from the stochastic acoustic parabolic equation (PE) and employ the instantaneously-optimal Dynamically Orthogonal (DO) equations theory. We derive stochastic DO-PEs that dynamically reduce and march the dominant multi-dimensional uncertainties respecting the nonlinear governing equations and non-Gaussian statistics. We develop the dynamical reduced-order DO-PEs theory for the Narrow-Angle parabolic equation and implement numerical schemes for discretizing and integrating the stochastic acoustic fields.

1.
Akyildiz
,
I. F.
,
Pompili
,
D.
, and
Melodia
,
T.
(
2005
). “
Underwater acoustic sensor networks: Research challenges
,”
Ad Hoc Networks
3
(
3
),
257
279
.
2.
Alexanderian
,
A.
(
2015
). “
A brief note on the Karhunen-Loève expansion
,” arXiv:1509.07526.
3.
Ali
,
W. H.
(
2019
). “
Dynamically orthogonal equations for stochastic underwater sound propagation
,” Master's thesis,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
,
Cambridge, MA
.
4.
Ali
,
W. H.
(
2023
). “
Stochastic dynamically orthogonal modeling and Bayesian learning for underwater acoustic propagation
,” Ph.D. thesis,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
,
Cambridge, MA
.
5.
Ali
,
W. H.
,
Bhabra
,
M. S.
,
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
,
March
,
A.
,
Edwards
,
J. R.
,
Rimpau
,
K.
, and
Ryu
,
P.
(
2019
). “
Stochastic oceanographic-acoustic prediction and Bayesian inversion for wide area ocean floor mapping
,” in
Proceeding Oceans 2019 MTS/IEEE Seattle
,
October 27–31
,
Seattle, WA
, pp.
1
10
.
6.
Ali
,
W. H.
,
Charous
,
A.
,
Mirabito
,
C.
,
Haley
,
P. J.
, Jr.
, and
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2023
). “
MSEAS-ParEq for ocean-acoustic modeling around the globe
,” in
Proceedings of OCEANS 2023 IEEE/MTS Gulf Coast
,
June 5–8
,
Limerick, Ireland
.
7.
Ali
,
W. H.
, and
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2024
). “
Dynamically orthogonal narrow-angle parabolic equations for stochastic underwater sound propagation. Part II: Applications
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
155
(
1
),
656
672
.
8.
Baggeroer
,
A. B.
,
Kuperman
,
W. A.
, and
Mikhalevsky
,
P. N.
(
1993
). “
An overview of matched field methods in ocean acoustics
,”
IEEE J. Oceanic Eng.
18
(
4
),
401
424
.
9.
Becker
,
J.
,
Sandwell
,
D.
,
Smith
,
W.
,
Braud
,
J.
,
Binder
,
B.
,
Depner
,
J.
,
Fabre
,
D.
,
Factor
,
J.
,
Ingalls
,
S.
,
Kim
,
S.
,
Ladner
,
K.
,
Marks
,
K.
,
Nelson
,
S.
,
Pharaoh
,
A.
,
Trimmer
,
R.
,
Von Rosenberg
,
J.
,
Wallace
,
G.
, and
Weatherall
,
P.
(
2009
). “
Global bathymetry and elevation data at 30 arc seconds resolution: SRTM30_PLUS
,”
Mar. Geodesy
32
(
4
),
355
371
.
10.
Benjamin
,
M. R.
,
Schmidt
,
H.
,
Newman
,
P. M.
, and
Leonard
,
J. J.
(
2010
). “
Nested autonomy for unmanned marine vehicles with MOOS-IvP
,”
J. Field Rob.
27
(
6
),
834
875
.
11.
Bergmann
,
P. G.
(
1946
). “
The wave equation in a medium with a variable index of refraction
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
17
(
4
),
329
333
.
12.
Bianco
,
M. J.
,
Gerstoft
,
P.
,
Traer
,
J.
,
Ozanich
,
E.
,
Roch
,
M. A.
,
Gannot
,
S.
, and
Deledalle
,
C.-A.
(
2019
). “
Machine learning in acoustics: Theory and applications
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
146
(
5
),
3590
3628
.
13.
Blondel
,
P.
(
2010
).
The Handbook of Sidescan Sonar
(
Springer Science & Business Media
,
New York
).
14.
Bonnel
,
J.
,
Thode
,
A. M.
,
Blackwell
,
S. B.
,
Kim
,
K.
, and
Michael Macrander
,
A.
(
2014
). “
Range estimation of bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus) calls in the arctic using a single hydrophone
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
136
(
1
),
145
155
.
15.
Born
,
M.
,
Wolf
,
E.
,
Bhatia
,
A. B.
,
Clemmow
,
P. C.
,
Gabor
,
D.
,
Stokes
,
A. R.
,
Taylor
,
A. M.
,
Wayman
,
P. A.
, and
Wilcock
,
W. L.
(
1999
). “
Principles of optics: Electromagnetic theory of propagation
,” in
Interference and Diffraction of Light
, 7th ed. (
Cambridge University Press
,
Cambridge, UK
).
16.
Botseas
,
G.
,
Lee
,
D.
, and
King
,
D.
(
1987
). “
FOR3D: A computer model for solving the LSS three-dimensional wide angle wave equation
,” U.S. Naval Underwater Systems Center TR 7943 (
Naval Underwater System Center
,
Newport, RI
).
17.
Branicki
,
M.
, and
Majda
,
A. J.
(
2013
). “
Fundamental limitations of polynomial chaos for uncertainty quantification in systems with intermittent instabilities
,”
Commun. Math. Sci.
11
(
1
),
55
103
.
18.
Brekhovskikh
,
L. M.
, and
Lysanov
,
Y.
(
1982
).
Fundamentals of Ocean Acoustics
(
Springer
,
New York
).
19.
Charous
,
A.
, and
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2021
). “
Dynamically orthogonal differential equations for stochastic and deterministic reduced-order modeling of ocean acoustic wave propagation
,” in
Proceedings of Oceans 2021 IEEE/MTS
,
September 20–23
,
San Diego, CA
, pp.
1
7
.
20.
Charous
,
A.
, and
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2023a
). “
Dynamically orthogonal Runge–Kutta schemes with perturbative retractions for the dynamical low-rank approximation
,”
SIAM J. Sci. Comput.
45
(
2
),
A872
A897
.
21.
Charous
,
A.
, and
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2023b
). “
Range-dynamical low-rank split-step Fourier method for the parabolic wave equation
,” in preparation.
22.
Charous
,
A.
, and
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2023c
). “
Stable rank-adaptive dynamically orthogonal Runge–Kutta schemes
,”
SIAM J. Sci. Comput.
arXiv:2211.07852 (in press).
23.
Chernov
,
L. A.
(
2017
).
Wave Propagation in a Random Medium
(
Courier Dover Publications
,
New York
).
24.
Collins
,
M. D.
(
1992
). “
A self–starter for the parabolic equation method
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
92
(
4
),
2069
2074
.
25.
Collins
,
M. D.
(
1995
). “
User's guide for RAM versions 1.0 and 1.0 p
,” Naval Research Lab, Washington, DC.
26.
Collins
,
M. D.
(
1999
). “
The stabilized self-starter
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
106
(
4
),
1724
1726
.
27.
Collins
,
M. D.
,
Cederberg
,
R. J.
,
King
,
D. B.
, and
Chin–Bing
,
S. A.
(
1996
). “
Comparison of algorithms for solving parabolic wave equations
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
100
(
1
),
178
182
.
28.
Colosi
,
J. A.
(
2008
). “
Acoustic mode coupling induced by shallow water nonlinear internal waves: Sensitivity to environmental conditions and space-time scales of internal waves
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
124
(
3
),
1452
1464
.
29.
Colosi
,
J. A.
(
2016
).
Sound Propagation through the Stochastic Ocean
(
Cambridge University Press
,
Cambridge, UK
).
30.
Colosi
,
J. A.
,
Chandrayadula
,
T. K.
,
Voronovich
,
A. G.
, and
Ostashev
,
V. E.
(
2013
). “
Coupled mode transport theory for sound transmission through an ocean with random sound speed perturbations: Coherence in deep water environments
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
134
(
4
),
3119
3133
.
31.
Colosi
,
J. A.
,
Flatté
,
S. M.
, and
Bracher
,
C.
(
1994
). “
Internal–wave effects on 1000-km oceanic acoustic pulse propagation: Simulation and comparison with experiment
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
96
(
1
),
452
468
.
32.
Cornuelle
,
B. D.
,
Worcester
,
P. F.
, and
Dzieciuch
,
M. A.
(
2008
). “
Ocean acoustic tomography
,”
J. Phys.
118
,
012002
.
33.
Creamer
,
D. B.
(
1996
). “
Scintillating shallow-water waveguides
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
99
(
5
),
2825
2838
.
34.
Creamer
,
D. B.
(
2006
). “
On using polynomial chaos for modeling uncertainty in acoustic propagation
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
119
(
4
),
1979
1994
.
35.
Dashen
,
R.
(
1979
). “
Path integrals for waves in random media
,”
J. Math. Phys.
20
(
5
),
894
920
.
36.
Doostan
,
A.
,
Ghanem
,
R. G.
, and
Red-Horse
,
J.
(
2007
). “
Stochastic model reduction for chaos representations
,”
Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng.
196
(
37–40
),
3951
3966
.
37.
Dosso
,
S. E.
(
2002
). “
Quantifying uncertainty in geoacoustic inversion. I. A. fast Gibbs sampler approach
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
111
(
1
),
129
142
.
38.
Dosso
,
S. E.
,
Dettmer
,
J.
,
Steininger
,
G.
, and
Holland
,
C. W.
(
2014
). “
Efficient trans-dimensional Bayesian inversion for geoacoustic profile estimation
,”
Inverse Problems
30
(
11
),
114018
.
39.
Dosso
,
S. E.
,
Morley
,
M. G.
,
Giles
,
P. M.
,
Brooke
,
G. H.
,
McCammon
,
D. F.
,
Pecknold
,
S.
, and
Hines
,
P. C.
(
2007
). “
Spatial field shifts in ocean acoustic environmental sensitivity analysis
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
122
(
5
),
2560
2570
.
40.
Dozier
,
L. B.
, and
Tappert
,
F. D.
(
1978a
). “
Statistics of normal mode amplitudes in a random ocean. I. Theory
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
63
(
2
),
353
365
.
41.
Dozier
,
L. B.
, and
Tappert
,
F. D.
(
1978b
). “
Statistics of normal mode amplitudes in a random ocean. II. Computations
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
64
(
2
),
533
547
.
42.
Duda
,
T. F.
,
Lin
,
Y.-T.
,
Newhall
,
A. E.
,
Helfrich
,
K. R.
,
Lynch
,
J. F.
,
Zhang
,
W. G.
,
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
, and
Wilkin
,
J.
(
2019
). “
Multiscale multiphysics data-informed modeling for three-dimensional ocean acoustic simulation and prediction
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
146
(
3
),
1996
2015
.
43.
Dutt
,
A.
,
Subramani
,
D. N.
,
Kulkarni
,
C. S.
, and
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2018
). “
Clustering of massive ensemble of vehicle trajectories in strong, dynamic and uncertain ocean flows
,” in
Proceedings of the OCEANS Conference 2018
,
May 28–31
,
Charleston, SC
.
44.
Elisseeff
,
P.
,
Schmidt
,
H.
, and
Xu
,
W.
(
2002
). “
Ocean acoustic tomography as a data assimilation problem
,”
IEEE J. Oceanic Eng.
27
(
2
),
275
282
.
45.
El Moçayd
,
N.
,
Mohamed
,
M. S.
,
Ouazar
,
D.
, and
Seaid
,
M.
(
2020
). “
Stochastic model reduction for polynomial chaos expansion of acoustic waves using proper orthogonal decomposition
,”
Rel. Eng. Syst. Safety
195
,
106733
.
46.
Etter
,
P. C.
(
2018
).
Underwater Acoustic Modeling and Simulation
(
CRC Press
,
Boca Raton, FL
).
47.
Evangelinos
,
C.
,
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
,
Xu
,
J.
,
Haley
,
P. J.
, and
Hill
,
C. N.
(
2009
). “
Many task computing for multidisciplinary ocean sciences: Real-time uncertainty prediction and data assimilation
,” in
Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop on Many-Task Computing on Grids and Supercomputers
,
November 16
,
Portland, OR
.
48.
Evangelinos
,
C.
,
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
,
Xu
,
J.
,
Haley
,
P. J.
, and
Hill
,
C. N.
(
2011
). “
Many task computing for real-time uncertainty prediction and data assimilation in the ocean
,”
IEEE Trans. Parallel Distrib. Syst.
22
(
6
),
1012
1024
.
49.
Evans
,
R. B.
(
1983
). “
A coupled mode solution for acoustic propagation in a waveguide with stepwise depth variations of a penetrable bottom
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
74
(
1
),
188
195
.
50.
Fabre
,
J. P.
, and
Wood
,
W. T.
(
2013
). “
Uncertainty of transmission loss due to small scale fluctuations of sound speed in two environments
,”
Proc. Mtgs. Acoust.
19
(
1
),
005008
.
51.
Feppon
,
F.
, and
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2018a
). “
Dynamically orthogonal numerical schemes for efficient stochastic advection and Lagrangian transport
,”
SIAM Rev.
60
(
3
),
595
625
.
52.
Feppon
,
F.
, and
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2018b
). “
A geometric approach to dynamical model-order reduction
,”
SIAM J. Matrix Anal. Appl.
39
(
1
),
510
538
.
53.
Feppon
,
F.
, and
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2019
). “
The extrinsic geometry of dynamical systems tracking nonlinear matrix projections
,”
SIAM J. Matrix Anal. Appl.
40
(
2
),
814
844
.
54.
Feynman
,
R.
, and
Hibbs
,
A.
(
1965
).
Quantum Mechanics and Path Integrals
(
Dover
,
New York
).
55.
Finette
,
S.
(
2005
). “
Embedding uncertainty into ocean acoustic propagation models (L)
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
117
(
3
),
997
1000
.
56.
Finette
,
S.
(
2006
). “
A stochastic representation of environmental uncertainty and its coupling to acoustic wave propagation in ocean waveguides
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
120
(
5
),
2567
2579
.
57.
Firing
,
E.
, and
Gordon
,
R. L.
(
1990
). “
Deep ocean acoustic Doppler current profiling
,” in
Proceedings of the IEEE Fourth Working Conference on Current Measurement
,
April 3–5
,
Clinton, MD
, pp.
192
201
.
58.
Flatté
,
S. M.
(
1983
). “
Wave propagation through random media: Contributions from ocean acoustics
,”
Proc. IEEE
71
(
11
),
1267
1294
.
59.
Gartner
,
J. W.
(
2004
). “
Estimating suspended solids concentrations from backscatter intensity measured by acoustic Doppler current profiler in San Francisco Bay, California
,”
Mar. Geology
211
(
3–4
),
169
187
.
60.
Gemba
,
K. L.
,
Vazquez
,
H. J.
,
Sarkar
,
J.
,
Tippman
,
J. D.
,
Cornuelle
,
B.
,
Hodgkiss
,
W. S.
, and
Kuperman
,
W.
(
2022
). “
Moving source ocean acoustic tomography with uncertainty quantification using controlled source-tow observations
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
151
(
2
),
861
880
.
61.
Gerdes
,
F.
, and
Finette
,
S.
(
2012
). “
A stochastic response surface formulation for the description of acoustic propagation through an uncertain internal wave field
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
132
(
4
),
2251
2264
.
62.
Gerstoft
,
P.
, and
Mecklenbräuker
,
C. F.
(
1998
). “
Ocean acoustic inversion with estimation of a posteriori probability distributions
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
104
(
2
),
808
819
.
63.
Ghanem
,
R. G.
, and
Spanos
,
P. D.
(
2003
).
Stochastic Finite Elements: A Spectral Approach
(
Courier Corporation
,
New York
).
64.
Gupta
,
A.
,
Ali
,
W. H.
, and
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2016
). “
Boundary conditions for stochastic DO equations
,” MSEAS Report (
MIT
,
Cambridge, MA
).
65.
Gupta
,
A.
, and
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2023
). “
Bayesian learning of coupled biogeochemical-physical models
,”
Prog. Oceanogr.
216
,
103050
.
66.
Harrison
,
C. H.
, and
Harrison
,
J. A.
(
1995
). “
A simple relationship between frequency and range averages for broadband sonar
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
97
(
2
),
1314
1317
.
67.
Heaney
,
K. D.
, and
Campbell
,
R. L.
(
2016
). “
Three-dimensional parabolic equation modeling of mesoscale eddy deflection
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
139
(
2
),
918
926
.
68.
Heuss
,
J. P.
,
Haley
,
P. J.
, Jr.,
Mirabito
,
C.
,
Coelho
,
E.
,
Schönau
,
M. C.
,
Heaney
,
K.
, and
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2020
). “
Reduced order modeling for stochastic prediction onboard autonomous platforms at sea
,” in
Proceedings of Oceans 2020 IEEE/MTS
,
October 5–14
,
Singapore
, pp.
1
10
.
69.
Humara
,
M. J.
,
Ali
,
W. H.
,
Charous
,
A.
,
Bhabra
,
M.
, and
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2022
). “
Stochastic acoustic ray tracing with dynamically orthogonal differential equations
,” in
Proceeding of Oceans 2022 IEEE/MTS
,
October 17–20
,
Hampton Roads, VA
, pp.
1
10
.
70.
Ishimaru
,
A.
(
1978
).
Wave Propagation and Scattering in Random Media
(
Academic Press
,
New York
).
71.
Jagannathan
,
S.
,
Bertsatos
,
I.
,
Symonds
,
D.
,
Chen
,
T.
,
Nia
,
H. T.
,
Jain
,
A. D.
,
Andrews
,
M.
,
Gong
,
Z.
,
Nero
,
R.
,
Ngor
,
L.
,
Jech
,
M.
,
Godo
,
O. R.
,
Lee
,
S.
,
Ratilal
,
P.
, and
Makris
,
N.
(
2009
). “
Ocean Acoustic Waveguide Remote Sensing (OAWRS) of marine ecosystems
,”
Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser.
395
,
137
160
.
72.
Jakobsson
,
M.
,
Allen
,
G.
,
Carbotte
,
S.
,
Falconer
,
R.
,
Ferrini
,
V.
,
Marks
,
K.
,
Mayer
,
L.
,
Rovere
,
M.
,
Schmitt
,
T.
,
Weatherall
,
P.
, and
Wigley
,
R.
(
2017
). “
The Nippon Foundation GEBCO seabed 2030: Roadmap for future ocean floor mapping
,” Nippon Foundation, Tokyo, Japan.
73.
James
,
K. R.
, and
Dowling
,
D. R.
(
2005
). “
A probability density function method for acoustic field uncertainty analysis
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
118
(
5
),
2802
2810
.
74.
James
,
K. R.
, and
Dowling
,
D. R.
(
2008
). “
A method for approximating acoustic-field-amplitude uncertainty caused by environmental uncertainties
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
124
(
3
),
1465
1476
.
75.
James
,
K. R.
, and
Dowling
,
D. R.
(
2011
). “
Pekeris waveguide comparisons of methods for predicting acoustic field amplitude uncertainty caused by a spatially uniform environmental uncertainty (L)
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
129
(
2
),
589
592
.
76.
Jensen
,
F. B.
,
Kuperman
,
W. A.
,
Porter
,
M. B.
, and
Schmidt
,
H.
(
2011
).
Computational Ocean Acoustics
(
Springer Science & Business Media
,
New York
).
77.
Jourdain
,
G.
,
Eriksson
,
L.-E.
,
Kim
,
S. H.
, and
Sohn
,
C. H.
(
2013
). “
Application of dynamic mode decomposition to acoustic-modes identification and damping in a 3-dimensional chamber with baffled injectors
,”
J. Sound Vib.
332
(
18
),
4308
4323
.
78.
Khazaie
,
S.
,
Wang
,
X.
,
Komatitsch
,
D.
, and
Sagaut
,
P.
(
2019
). “
Uncertainty quantification for acoustic wave propagation in a shallow water environment
,”
Wave Motion
91
,
102390
.
79.
Khine
,
Y. Y.
,
Creamer
,
D. B.
, and
Finette
,
S.
(
2010
). “
Acoustic propagation in an uncertain waveguide environment using stochastic basis expansions
,”
J. Comput. Acoust.
18
(
4
),
397
441
.
80.
Koch
,
O.
, and
Lubich
,
C.
(
2007
). “
Dynamical low-rank approximation
,”
SIAM J. Matrix Anal. Appl.
29
(
2
),
434
454
.
81.
Lavery
,
A. C.
,
Wiebe
,
P. H.
,
Stanton
,
T. K.
,
Lawson
,
G. L.
,
Benfield
,
M. C.
, and
Copley
,
N.
(
2007
). “
Determining dominant scatterers of sound in mixed zooplankton populations
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
122
(
6
),
3304
3326
.
82.
Le Maître
,
O.
, and
Knio
,
O. M.
(
2010
).
Spectral Methods for Uncertainty Quantification: With Applications to Computational Fluid Dynamics
(
Springer Science & Business Media
,
New York
).
83.
Le Maître
,
O. P.
,
Knio
,
O. M.
,
Najm
,
H. N.
, and
Ghanem
,
R. G.
, (
2001
). “
A stochastic projection method for fluid flow: I. Basic formulation
,”
J. Comput. Phys.
173
(
2
),
481
511
.
84.
Lee
,
B. M.
,
Johnson
,
J. R.
, and
Dowling
,
D. R.
(
2022
). “
Predicting acoustic transmission loss uncertainty in ocean environments with neural networks
,”
J. Mech. Sci. Eng.
10
(
10
),
1548
.
85.
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
1999
). “
Data assimilation via error subspace statistical estimation, Part II: Mid-Atlantic Bight shelfbreak front simulations, and ESSE validation
,”
Mon. Wea. Rev.
127
(
7
),
1408
1432
.
86.
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2006
). “
Uncertainty estimation and prediction for interdisciplinary ocean dynamics
,”
J. Comput. Phys.
217
(
1
),
176
199
.
87.
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2007
). “
Adaptive modeling, adaptive data assimilation and adaptive sampling
,”
Phys. D: Nonlinear Phenom.
230
(
1
),
172
196
.
88.
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
, and
Chiu
,
C.-S.
(
2002
). “
Four-dimensional data assimilation for coupled physical-acoustical fields
,” in
Acoustic Variability 2002
, edited by
N. G.
Pace
and
F. B.
Jensen
(
Kluwer Academic Press
,
Philadelphia, PA
), pp.
417
424
.
89.
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
,
Chiu
,
C.-S.
,
Gawarkiewicz
,
G. G.
,
Abbot
,
P.
,
Robinson
,
A. R.
,
Miller
,
R. N.
,
Haley
,
P. J.
, Jr.
,
Leslie
,
W. G.
,
Majumdar
,
S. J.
,
Pang
,
A.
, and
Lekien
,
F.
(
2006
). “
Quantifying uncertainties in ocean predictions
,”
Oceanography
19
(
1
),
90
105
.
90.
Lermusiaux
,
P. F.
,
Chiu
,
C.-S.
, and
Robinson
,
A. R.
(
2002
). “
Modeling uncertainties in the prediction of the acoustic wavefield in a shelfbreak environment
,” in
Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Theoretical and Computational Acoustics
, edited by
E.-C.
Shang
,
Q.
Li
, and
T. F.
Gao
(
World Scientific Publishing Co
.,
Singapore
), pp.
191
200
.
91.
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
,
Haley
,
P. J.
, Jr.
,
Mirabito
,
C.
,
Ali
,
W. H.
,
Bhabra
,
M.
,
Abbot
,
P.
,
Chiu
,
C.-S.
, and
Emerson
,
C.
(
2020a
). “
Multi-resolution probabilistic ocean physics-acoustic modeling: Validation in the New Jersey continental shelf
,” in
Oceans 2020 IEEE/MTS
,
October 5–14
,
Singapore
, pp.
1
9
.
92.
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
,
Mirabito
,
C.
,
Haley
,
P. J.
, Jr.
,
Ali
,
W. H.
,
Gupta
,
A.
,
Jana
,
S.
,
Dorfman
,
E.
,
Laferriere
,
A.
,
Kofford
,
A.
,
Shepard
,
G.
,
Goldsmith
,
M.
,
Heaney
,
K.
,
Coelho
,
E.
,
Boyle
,
J.
,
Murray
,
J.
,
Freitag
,
L.
, and
Morozov
,
A.
(
2020b
). “
Real-time probabilistic coupled ocean physics-acoustics forecasting and data assimilation for underwater GPS
,” in
Oceans 2020 IEEE/MTS
,
October 5–14
,
Singapore
.
93.
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
, and
Robinson
,
A. R.
(
1999
). “
Data assimilation via error subspace statistical estimation, Part I: Theory and schemes
,”
Mon. Weather Rev.
127
(
7
),
1385
1407
.
94.
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
,
Xu
,
J.
,
Chen
,
C.-F.
,
Jan
,
S.
,
Chiu
,
L.
, and
Yang
,
Y.-J.
(
2010
). “
Coupled ocean–acoustic prediction of transmission loss in a continental shelfbreak region: Predictive skill, uncertainty quantification, and dynamical sensitivities
,”
IEEE J. Oceanic Eng.
35
(
4
),
895
916
.
95.
Lin
,
J.
, and
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2021
). “
Minimum-correction second-moment matching: Theory, algorithms and applications
,”
Numer. Math.
147
(
3
),
611
650
.
96.
Lin
,
Y.-T.
,
Duda
,
T. F.
, and
Newhall
,
A. E.
(
2013
). “
Three-dimensional sound propagation models using the parabolic-equation approximation and the split-step fourier method
,”
J. Comput. Acoust.
21
(
01
),
1250018
.
97.
Liu
,
J. S.
(
2008
).
Monte Carlo Strategies in Scientific Computing
(
Springer Science & Business Media
,
New York
).
98.
Loeve
,
M.
(
1978
).
Probability Theory II
(
Springer
,
New York
).
99.
Lolla
,
T.
, and
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2017a
). “
A Gaussian mixture model smoother for continuous nonlinear stochastic dynamical systems: Applications
,”
Mon. Weather Rev.
145
,
2763
2790
.
100.
Lolla
,
T.
, and
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2017b
). “
A Gaussian mixture model smoother for continuous nonlinear stochastic dynamical systems: Theory and scheme
,”
Mon. Weather Rev.
145
,
2743
2761
.
101.
Lu
,
P.
, and
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2021
). “
Bayesian learning of stochastic dynamical models
,”
Phys. D
427
,
133003
.
102.
MacLennan
,
D. N.
, and
Simmonds
,
E. J.
(
2013
).
Fisheries Acoustics
(
Springer Science & Business Media
,
New York
).
103.
Makris
,
N. C.
,
Ratilal
,
P.
,
Symonds
,
D. T.
,
Jagannathan
,
S.
,
Lee
,
S.
, and
Nero
,
R. W.
(
2006
). “
Fish population and behavior revealed by instantaneous continental shelf-scale imaging
,”
Science
311
(
5761
),
660
663
.
104.
McDaniel
,
S. T.
(
1982
). “
Mode coupling due to interaction with the seabed
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
72
(
3
),
916
923
.
105.
Medwin
,
H.
, and
Clay
,
C. S.
(
1998
). “
Chapter 1 - The realm of acoustical oceanography; theory and applications of ocean acoustics
,” in
Fundamentals of Acoustical Oceanography
, Applications of Modern Acoustics, edited by
H.
Medwin
and
C. S.
Clay
(
Academic Press
,
San Diego
), pp.
1
VI
.
106.
Michalopoulou
,
Z.-H.
,
Gerstoft
,
P.
,
Kostek
,
B.
, and
Roch
,
M. A.
(
2021
). “
Introduction to the special issue on machine learning in acoustics
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
150
(
4
),
3204
3210
.
107.
Miller
,
R. N.
(
2007
). “
Topics in data assimilation: Stochastic processes
,”
Phys. D
230
(
1–2
),
17
26
.
108.
Morozov
,
A. K.
, and
Colosi
,
J. A.
(
2017
). “
Equations for normal-mode statistics of sound scattering by a rough elastic boundary in an underwater waveguide, including backscattering
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
142
(
3
),
EL292
EL298
.
109.
Munk
,
W.
, and
Wunsch
,
C.
(
1979
). “
Ocean acoustic tomography: A scheme for large scale monitoring
,”
Deep Sea Res. Part A
26
(
2
),
123
161
.
110.
Najm
,
H. N.
(
2009
). “
Uncertainty quantification and polynomial chaos techniques in computational fluid dynamics
,”
Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech.
41
,
35
52
.
111.
Patterson
,
B.
, and
Dowling
,
D. R.
(
2017
). “
Estimation of the probability density function of transmission loss in the ocean using area statistics
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
142
(
4
),
2525
2525
.
112.
Pekeris
,
C. L.
(
1948
). “
Theory of propagation of explosive sound in shallow water
,” in
Propagation of Sound in the Ocean
(
Geological Society of America
,
Boulder, CO
).
113.
Pierce
,
A. D.
(
1965
). “
Extension of the method of normal modes to sound propagation in an almost–stratified medium
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
37
(
1
),
19
27
.
114.
Pope
,
S. B.
(
2000
).
Turbulent Flows
(
Cambridge University Press
,
Cambridge, UK
).
115.
Porter
,
M.
(
1991
). “
The Kraken normal mode program
,” Report No. SM-245 (
Saclant Undersea Research Center
,
La Spezia, Italy
).
116.
Porter
,
M. B.
(
2010
). “
Open–source software for modeling sound propagation in the ocean
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
128
,
2299
.
117.
Quazi
,
A.
(
1981
). “
An overview on the time delay estimate in active and passive systems for target localization
,”
IEEE Trans. Acoust. Speech, Signal Process.
29
(
3
),
527
533
.
118.
Ratilal
,
P.
, and
Makris
,
N. C.
(
2005
). “
Mean and covariance of the forward field propagated through a stratified ocean waveguide with three-dimensional random inhomogeneities
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
118
(
6
),
3532
3559
.
119.
Rixen
,
M.
,
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
, and
Osler
,
J.
(
2012
). “
Quantifying, predicting, and exploiting uncertainties in marine environments
,”
Ocean Dyn.
62
(
3
),
495
499
.
120.
Robinson
,
A. R.
,
Abbot
,
P.
,
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
, and
Dillman
,
L.
(
2002
). “
Transfer of uncertainties through physical-acoustical-sonar end-to-end systems: A conceptual basis
,” in
Acoustic Variability, 2002
, edited by
N. G.
Pace
and
F. B.
Jensen
(
Kluwer Academic Press
,
Philadelphia, PA
), pp.
603
610
.
121.
Robinson
,
A. R.
, and
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J
(
2004
). “
Prediction systems with data assimilation for coupled ocean science and ocean acoustics
,” in
Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Theoretical and Computational Acoustics
,
August 11–15
,
Honolulu, HI
, pp.
325
342
.
122.
Rouseff
,
D.
,
Turgut
,
A.
,
Wolf
,
S. N.
,
Finette
,
S.
,
Orr
,
M. H.
,
Pasewark
,
B. H.
,
Apel
,
J. R.
,
Badiey
,
M.
,
Chiu
,
C-s.
,
Headrick
,
R. H.
,
Lynch
,
J. F.
,
Kemp
,
J. N.
,
Newhall
,
A. E.
,
von der Heydt
,
K.
, and
Tielbuerger
,
D.
(
2002
). “
Coherence of acoustic modes propagating through shallow water internal waves
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
111
(
4
),
1655
1666
.
123.
Rytov
,
S. M.
,
Kravtsov
,
Y. A.
, and
Tatarskii
,
V. I.
(
1987
).
Principles of Statistical Radiophysics 1. Elements of Random Process Theory
(
Springer
,
New York
).
124.
Ryu
,
T.
,
Ali
,
W. H.
,
Haley
,
P. J.
, Jr.
,
Mirabito
,
C.
,
Charous
,
A.
, and
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2022
). “
Incremental low-rank dynamic mode decomposition model for efficient dynamic forecast dissemination and onboard forecasting
,” in
Proceeding of Oceans 2022 IEEE/MTS
,
October 17–20
,
Hampton Roads, VA
, pp.
1
8
.
125.
Ryu
,
T.
,
Heuss
,
J. P.
,
Haley
,
P. J.
, Jr.
,
Mirabito
,
C.
,
Coelho
,
E.
,
Hursky
,
P.
,
Schönau
,
M. C.
,
Heaney
,
K.
, and
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2021
). “
Adaptive stochastic reduced order modeling for autonomous ocean platforms
,” in
Proceedings of Oceans 2021 IEEE/MTS
,
September 20–23
,
San Diego, CA
, pp.
1
9
.
126.
Sapsis
,
T. P.
, and
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2009
). “
Dynamically orthogonal field equations for continuous stochastic dynamical systems
,”
Phys. D
238
(
23–24
),
2347
2360
.
127.
Sapsis
,
T. P.
, and
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2012
). “
Dynamical criteria for the evolution of the stochastic dimensionality in flows with uncertainty
,”
Phys. D
241
(
1
),
60
76
.
128.
Schmid
,
P. J.
(
2022
). “
Dynamic mode decomposition and its variants
,”
Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech.
54
,
225
254
.
129.
Shorey
,
J.
,
Nolte
,
L.
, and
Krolik
,
J.
(
1994
). “
Computationally efficient Monte Carlo estimation algorithms for matched field processing in uncertain ocean environments
,”
J. Comput. Acoust.
02
(
03
),
285
314
.
130.
Smith
,
K. B.
, and
Tappert
,
F. D.
(
1993
). “
UMPE: The University of Miami Parabolic Equation model. Version 1.0
,”
University of Miami
,
Miami, FL
.
131.
Sondergaard
,
T.
, and
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2013a
). “
Data assimilation with Gaussian mixture models using the dynamically orthogonal field equations. Part I: Theory and scheme
,”
Mon. Weather Rev.
141
(
6
),
1737
1760
.
132.
Sondergaard
,
T.
, and
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2013b
). “
Data assimilation with Gaussian mixture models using the dynamically orthogonal field equations. Part II: Applications
,”
Mon. Weather Rev.
141
(
6
),
1761
1785
.
133.
Stojanovic
,
M.
(
1996
). “
Recent advances in high-speed underwater acoustic communications
,”
IEEE J. Oceanic Eng.
21
(
2
),
125
136
.
134.
Sturm
,
F.
, and
Fawcett
,
J. A.
(
2003
). “
On the use of higher-order azimuthal schemes in 3-D PE modeling
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
113
(
6
),
3134
3145
.
135.
Subramani
,
D.
, and
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2024
). “
Probabilistic ocean predictions with dynamically-orthogonal primitive equations
,” in preparation.
136.
Tappert
,
F. D.
(
1977
). “
The parabolic approximation method
,” in
Wave Propagation and Underwater Acoustics
, edited by
J. B.
Keller
and
J. S.
Papadakis
(
Springer
,
New York
), p.
224
.
137.
Tatarskii
,
V. I.
(
1971
). “
The effects of the turbulent atmosphere on wave propagation
” (Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem, Israel).
138.
Thorsos
,
E. I.
,
Henyey
,
F. S.
,
Elam
,
W. T.
,
Hefner
,
B. T.
,
Reynolds
,
S. A.
, and
Yang
,
J.
(
2010
). “
Transport theory for shallow water propagation with rough boundaries
,”
AIP Conf. Proc.
1272
(
1
),
99
105
.
139.
Tollefsen
,
C. D. S.
(
2021
). “
Predicting acoustic variability: Pragmatic considerations for selecting a stochastic or deterministic approach
,”
IEEE J. Oceanic Eng.
46
(
3
),
1045
1056
.
140.
Tolstoy
,
A.
(
1993
).
Matched Field Processing for Underwater Acoustics
(
World Scientific
,
Singapore
).
141.
Tolstoy
,
A.
(
1996
). “
3-D propagation issues and models
,”
J. Comput. Acoust.
04
(
03
),
243
271
.
142.
Ueckermann
,
M. P.
, and
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
(
2012
). “
2.29 finite volume matlab framework documentation
,”
MSEAS Report No. 14
(
MIT
,
Cambridge, MA
).
143.
Ueckermann
,
M. P.
,
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
, and
Sapsis
,
T. P.
(
2013
). “
Numerical schemes for dynamically orthogonal equations of stochastic fluid and ocean flows
,”
J. Comput. Phys.
233
,
272
294
.
144.
Uscinski
,
B. J.
(
1977
).
The Elements of Wave Propagation in Random Media
(
McGraw-Hill Companies
,
New York
).
145.
Wang
,
D.
,
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
,
Haley
,
P. J.
, Jr.
,
Eickstedt
,
D.
,
Leslie
,
W. G.
, and
Schmidt
,
H.
(
2009
). “
Acoustically focused adaptive sampling and on-board routing for marine rapid environmental assessment
,”
J. Mar. Syst.
78
,
S393
S407
.
146.
Xiu
,
D.
, and
Karniadakis
,
G. E.
(
2003
). “
Modeling uncertainty in flow simulations via generalized polynomial chaos
,”
J. Comput. Phys.
187
(
1
),
137
167
.
147.
Xiu
,
D.
,
Lucor
,
D.
,
Su
,
C.-H.
, and
Karniadakis
,
G. E.
(
2002
). “
Stochastic modeling of flow-structure interactions using generalized polynomial chaos
,”
J. Fluids Eng.
124
(
1
),
51
59
.
148.
Yilmaz
,
N. K.
,
Evangelinos
,
C.
,
Patrikalakis
,
N. M.
,
Lermusiaux
,
P. F. J.
,
Haley
,
P. J.
,
Leslie
,
W. G.
,
Robinson
,
A. R.
,
Wang
,
D.
, and
Schmidt
,
H.
(
2006
). “
Path planning methods for adaptive sampling of environmental and acoustical ocean fields
,” in
Proceedings of Oceans 2006
,
September 18–21
, Boston, MA.
149.
Zingarelli
,
R. A.
(
2008
). “
A mode-based technique for estimating uncertainty in range-averaged transmission loss results from underwater acoustic calculations
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
124
(
4
),
EL218
EL222
.
You do not currently have access to this content.