Many species rely on acoustic communication to coordinate activities and communicate to conspecifics. Cataloging vocal behavior is a first step towards understanding how individuals communicate information and how communication may be degraded by anthropogenic noise. The Cook Inlet beluga population is endangered with an estimated 331 individuals. Anthropogenic noise is considered a threat for this population and can negatively impact communication. To characterize this population's vocal behavior, vocalizations were measured and classified into three categories: whistles (n = 1264, 77%), pulsed calls (n = 354, 22%), and combined calls (n = 15, 1%), resulting in 41 call types. Two quantitative analyses were conducted to compare with the manual classification. A classification and regression tree and Random Forest had a 95% and 85% agreement with the manual classification, respectively. The most common call types per category were then used to investigate masking by commercial ship noise. Results indicate that these call types were partially masked by distant ship noise and completely masked by close ship noise in the frequency range of 0–12 kHz. Understanding vocal behavior and the effects of masking in Cook Inlet belugas provides important information supporting the management of this endangered population.
REFERENCES
2.
Ames
,
A. E.
,
Blackwell
,
S. B.
,
Tervo
,
O. M.
, and
Heide-Jørgensen
,
M. P.
(2021
). “
Evidence of stereotyped contact call use in narwhal (Monodon monoceros) mother-calf communication
,” PLoS One
16
, e0254393
.3.
Angiel
,
N. M.
(1997
). “
The vocal repertoire of the beluga whale in bristol Bay, Alaska
,”
Master's thesis
,
University of Washington
,
Seattle, WA
.1.
ANSI
(2018
). ANSI S3/SC1.6-2018,
Procedure for Determining Audiograms in Toothed Whales through Evoked Potential Methods
(
American National Standards Institute
,
New York
).4.
Au
,
W. W. L.
,
Carder
,
D. A.
,
Penner
,
R. H.
, and
Scronce
,
B. L.
(1985
). “
Demonstration of adaptation in beluga whale echolocation signals
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
77
, 726
–730
.5.
Au
,
W. W L.
, and
Hastings
,
M. C.
(2008
). Principles of Marine Bioacoustics
(
Springer
,
New York
).6.
Belikov
,
R. A.
, and
Bel'kovich
,
V. M.
(2006
). “
High-pitched tonal signals of beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) in a summer assemblage off Solovetskii Island in the White Sea
,” Acoust. Phys.
52
, 125
–131
.7.
Belikov
,
R. A.
, and
Bel'kovich
,
V. M.
(2007
). “
Whistles of beluga whales in the reproductive gathering off Solovetskii Island in the White Sea
,” Acoust. Phys.
53
, 528
–534
.8.
Belikov
,
R. A.
, and
Bel'kovich
,
V. M.
(2008
). “
Communicative pulsed signals of beluga whales in the reproductive gathering off Solovetskii Island in the White Sea
,” Acoust. Phys.
54
, 115
–123
.9.
Blevins‐Manhard
,
R.
,
Atkinson
,
S.
, and
Lammers
,
M.
(2017
). “
Spatial and temporal patterns in the calling behavior of beluga whales, Delphinapterus leucas, in Cook Inlet, Alaska
,” Mar. Mammal Sci.
33
, 112
–133
.10.
Bradbury
,
J. W.
, and
Vehrencamp
,
S. L.
(2011
). Principles of Animal Communication
, 2nd ed. (
Sinauer Associates, Inc
.,
Sunderland, MA
).11.
Brady
,
B.
,
Hedwig
,
D.
,
Trygonis
,
V.
, and
Gerstein
,
E.
(2020
). “
Classification of Florida manatee (Trichechus manatus latirostris) vocalizations
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
147
, 1597
–1606
.12.
Branstetter
,
B. K.
, and
Sills
,
J. M.
(2022
). “
Mechanisms of auditory masking in marine mammals
,” Anim. Cogn.
25
, 1029
–1047
.13.
Breiman
,
L.
(2001
). “
Random forests
,” Mach. Learn.
45
, 5
–32
.14.
Breiman
,
L.
,
Friedman
,
J. H.
,
Olshen
,
R. A.
, and
Stone
,
C. G.
(1984
). Classification and Regression Trees
(
Chapman and Hall
,
London, UK
).15.
Caldwell
,
M. C.
, and
Caldwell
,
D. K.
(1965
). “
Individualized whistle contours in bottle-nosed dolphins (Tursiops truncatus)
,” Nature
207
, 434
–435
.16.
Caldwell
,
M. C.
, and
Caldwell
,
D. K.
(1967
). “
Intraspecific transfer of information via the pulsed sound in captive odontocete cetaceans
,” Anim. Sonar Syst.
2
, 879
–936
.17.
Castellote
,
M.
,
Mooney
,
T. A.
,
Quakenbush
,
L.
,
Hobbs
,
R.
,
Goertz
,
C.
, and
Gaglione
,
E.
(2014
). “
Baseline hearing abilities and variability in wild beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas)
,” J. Exp. Biol.
217
, 1682
–1691
.18.
Castellote
,
M.
,
Small
,
R. J.
,
Lammers
,
M. O.
,
Jenniges
,
J. J.
,
Mondragon
,
J.
, and
Atkinson
,
S.
(2016
). “
Dual instrument passive acoustic monitoring of belugas in Cook Inlet, Alaska
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
139
, 2697
–2707
.19.
Castellote
,
M.
,
Small
,
R.
,
Lammers
,
M.
,
Jenniges
,
J.
,
Mondragon
,
J.
,
Garner
,
C.
,
Atkinson
,
S.
,
Delevaux
,
J. M. S.
,
Graham
,
R.
, and
Westerholt
,
D.
(2020
). “
Seasonal distribution and foraging occurrence of Cook Inlet beluga whales based on passive acoustic monitoring
,” Endang. Species Res.
41
, 225
–243
.20.
Castellote
,
M.
,
Thayre
,
B.
,
Mahoney
,
M.
,
Mondragon
,
J.
,
Lammers
,
M. O.
, and
Small
,
R. J.
(2019
). “
Anthropogenic noise and the endangered Cook Inlet beluga whale, Delphinapterus leucas: Acoustic considerations for management
,” Mar. Fish. Rev.
80
, 63
–88
.21.
Chmelnitsky
,
E. G.
, and
Ferguson
,
S. H.
(2012
). “
Beluga whale, Delphinapterus leucas, vocalizations from the Churchill River, Manitoba, Canada
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
131
, 4821
–4835
.22.
DeRuiter
,
S. L.
,
Southall
,
B. L.
,
Calambokidis
,
J.
,
Zimmer
,
W. M. X.
,
Sadykova
,
D.
,
Falcone
,
E. A.
,
Friedlaender
,
A. S.
,
Joseph
,
J. E.
,
Moretti
,
D.
,
Schorr
,
G. S.
,
Thomas
,
L.
, and
Tyack
,
P. L.
(2013
). “
First direct measurements of behavioural responses by Cuvier's beaked whales to mid-frequency active sonar
,” Biol. Lett.
9
, 20130223
–20130225
.23.
Dudzinski
,
K. M.
,
Thomas
,
J. A.
, and
Gregg
,
J. D.
(2009
). “
Communication in marine mammals
,” in Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals
, 2nd ed., edited by
W. F.
Perrin
,
B.
Würsig
, and
J. G. M.
Thewissen
(
Academic Press
, San Diego, CA), pp. 260
–269
.24.
Dugan
,
P. J.
,
Ponirakis
,
D. W.
,
Zollweg
,
J. A.
,
Pitzrick
,
M. S.
,
Morano
,
J. L.
,
Warde
,
A. M.
,
Rice
,
A. N.
,
Clark
,
C. W.
, and
Van Parijs
,
S. M.
(2011
). “
SEDNA - Bioacoustic Analysis Toolbox
,” in Oceans-11 Mts
,
IEEE
,
Kona
(IEEE, New York).25.
Eley
,
W. D.
(2006
).
Cook Inlet Vessel Traffic Survey: Report to Cook Inlet Regional Citizens Advisory Council
(
Cape International, Inc. & Nuka Research and Planning Group, LLC
,
Juneau, AK
).26.
Erbe
,
C.
(2008
). “
Critical ratios of beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) and masked signal duration
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
124
, 2216
–2223
.27.
Erbe
,
C.
,
Reichmuth
,
C.
,
Cunningham
,
K.
,
Lucke
,
K.
, and
Dooling
,
R.
(2016
). “
Communication masking in marine mammals: A review and research strategy
,” Mar. Pollut. Bull.
103
, 15
–38
.28.
Faucher
,
A.
(1988
). “
The vocal repertoire of the St. Lawrence estuary population of beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas) and its behavioral, social, and environmental contexts
,”
Master's thesis
,
Dalhousie University
,
Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
.29.
Filatova
,
O. A.
,
Fedutin
,
I. D.
,
Nagaylik
,
M. M.
,
Burdin
,
A. M.
, and
Hoyt
,
E.
(2009
). “
Usage of monophonic and biphonic calls by free-ranging resident killer whales (Orcinus orca) in Kamchatka, Russia Far East
,” Acta Ethol.
12
, 37
–44
.30.
Finneran
,
J. J.
(2015
). “
Noise-induced hearing loss in marine mammals: A review of temporary threshold shift studies from 1996 to 2015
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
138
, 1702
–1726
.31.
Fish
,
M.
, and
Mowbray
,
W. H.
(1962
). “
Production of underwater sound by the white whale or beluga, Delphinapterus leucas
,” J. Mar. Res.
20
, 149
–162
.32.
Ford
,
J. K. B.
(1989
). “
Acoustic behaviour of resident killer whales (Orcinus orca) off Vancouver Island, British Columbia
,” Can. J. Zool.
67
, 727
–745
.33.
Freeberg
,
T. M.
,
Dunbar
,
R. I. M.
, and
Ord
,
T. J.
(2012
). “
Social complexity as a proximate and ultimate factor in communicative complexity
,” Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B.
367
, 1785
–1801
.34.
Garland
,
E. C.
,
Castellote
,
M.
, and
Berchok
,
C. L.
(2015
). “
Beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas) vocalizations and call classification from the eastern Beaufort Sea population
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
137
, 3054
–3067
.35.
Goetz
,
K. T.
,
Montgomery
,
R. A.
,
Ver Hoef
,
J. M.
,
Hobbs
,
R. C.
, and
Johnson
,
D. S.
(2012
). “
Identifying essential summer habitat of the endangered beluga whale Delphinapterus leucas in Cook Inlet, Alaska
,” Endang. Species Res.
16
, 135
–147
.36.
Goetz
,
K. T.
,
Rugh
,
D. J.
,
Read
,
A. J.
, and
Hobbs
,
R. C.
(2007
). “
Habitat use in a marine ecosystem: Beluga whales Delphinapterus leucas in Cook Inlet, Alaska
,” Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser.
330
, 247
–256
.37.
Goetz
,
K. T.
,
Shelden
,
K. E. W.
,
Sims
,
C. L.
,
Waite
,
J. M.
, and
Wade
,
P. R.
(2023
). “
Abundance of belugas (Delphinapterus leucas) in Cook Inlet, Alaska, June 2021 and June 2022
,” Alaska Fisheries Science Center Processed Report No. 2023-03, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Seattle, WA.38.
Hammerschmidt
,
K.
, and
Fischer
,
J.
(2019
). “
Baboon vocal repertoires and the evolution of primate vocal diversity
,” J. Hum. Evol.
126
, 1
–13
.39.
Hill
,
P. S.
, and
DeMaster
,
D. P.
(1998
). “
Alaska marine mammal stock assessments, 1998
,” U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-AFSC-97, 165
.40.
Hobbs
,
R. C.
,
Laidre
,
K. L.
,
Vos
,
D. J.
,
Mahoney
,
B. A.
, and
Eagleton
,
M.
(2005
). “
Movements and area use of belugas, Delphinapterus leucas, in a subarctic Alaskan estuary
,” Arctic
58
, 331
–458
.41.
Holt
,
M. M.
,
Noren
,
D. P.
, and
Emmons
,
C. K.
(2011
). “
Effects of noise levels and call types on the source levels of killer whale calls
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
130
, 3100
–3106
.42.
Janik
,
V. M.
,
Sayigh
,
L. S.
, and
Wells
,
R. S.
(2006
). “
Signature whistle shape conveys identity information to bottlenose dolphins
,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.
103
, 8293
–8297
.43.
Janik
,
V. M.
, and
Slater
,
P. J. B.
(1998
). “
Context-specific use suggests that bottlenose dolphin signature whistles are cohesion calls
,” Anim. Behav.
56
, 829
–838
.45.
Karlsen
,
J. D.
,
Bisther
,
A.
,
Lydersen
,
C.
,
Haug
,
T.
, and
Kovacs
,
K. M.
(2002
). “
Summer vocalisations of adult male white whales (Delphinapterus leucas) in Svalbard, Norway
,” Polar Biol.
25
, 808
–817
.46.
Kershenbaum
,
A.
,
Blumstein
,
D. T.
,
Roch
,
M. A.
,
Akçay
,
Ç.
,
Backus
,
G.
,
Bee
,
M. A.
,
Bohn
,
K.
,
Cao
,
Y.
,
Carter
,
G.
,
Cäsar
,
C.
,
Coen
,
M.
,
DeRuiter
,
S. L.
,
Doyle
,
L.
,
Edelman
,
S.
,
Ferreri-Cancho
,
R.
,
Freeberg
,
T. M.
,
Garland
,
E. C.
,
Gustison
,
M.
,
Harley
,
H. E.
,
Huetz
,
C.
,
Hughes
,
M.
,
Hyland Bruno
,
J.
,
Ilany
,
A.
,
Jin
,
D. Z.
,
Johnson
,
M.
,
Ju
,
C.
,
Karnowski
,
J.
,
Lohr
,
B.
,
Manser
,
M. B.
,
McCowan
,
B.
,
Mercado
,
E.,
III
,
Narins
,
P. M.
,
Piel
,
A.
,
Rice
,
M.
,
Salmi
,
R.
,
Sasahara
,
K.
,
Sayigh
,
L.
,
Shiu
,
Y.
,
Taylor
,
C.
,
Vallejo
,
E. E.
,
Waller
,
S.
, and
Zamora-Gutierrez
,
V.
(2016
). “
Acoustic sequences in non-human animals: A tutorial review and prospectus
,” Biol. Rev.
91
, 13
–52
.47.
Klishin
,
V. O.
,
Popov
,
V. V.
, and
Supin
,
A. Y.
(2000
). “
Hearing capabilities of a beluga whale, Delphinapterus leucas
,” Aquat. Mamm.
26
, 212
–228
, available at https://www.aquaticmammalsjournal.org/article/volume-26-issues/.44.
K. Lisa Yang Center for Conservation Bioacoustics
. (2023
). “
Raven Pro: Interactive Sound Analysis Software
,” Cornell Lab Ornithology, V 1.6.4.48.
Kovacs
,
K. M.
,
Romano
,
T. A.
,
Reeves
,
R. R.
,
Hobbs
,
R. C.
,
Desportes
,
G.
,
Brennan
,
R.
, and
Castellote
,
M.
(2021
). “
Polar Research Special Cluster—Beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas): Knowledge from the wild, human care and TEK
,” Polar Res.
40
, 8235
. 49.
Laidre
,
K. L.
,
Shelden
,
K. E. W.
,
Rugh
,
D. J.
, and
Mahoney
,
B. A.
(2000
). “
Beluga, Delphinapterus leucas, distribution and survey effort in the Gulf of Alaska
,” Mar. Fish. Rev.
62
, 27
–36
, available at https://spo.nmfs.noaa.gov/content/beluga-delphinapterus-leucas-distribution-and-survey-effort-gulf-alaska.50.
Lammers
,
M. O.
,
Castellote
,
M.
,
Small
,
R. J.
,
Atkinson
,
S.
,
Jenniges
,
J.
,
Rosinski
,
A.
,
Oswald
,
J. N.
, and
Garner
,
C.
(2013
). “
Passive acoustic monitoring of Cook Inlet beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas)
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
134
, 2497
–2504
.51.
Lemasson
,
A.
,
Mikus
,
M.-A.
,
Blois-Heulin
,
C.
, and
Lodé
,
T.
(2014
). “
Vocal repertoire, individual acoustic distinctiveness, and social networks in a group of captive Asian small-clawed otters (Aonyx cinerea)
,” J. Mammal.
95
, 128
–139
.52.
Lesage
,
V.
,
Barrette
,
C.
,
Kingsley
,
M. C. S.
, and
Sjare
,
B.
(1999
). “
The effect of vessel noise on the vocal behavior of belugas in the St. Lawrence River Estuary, Canada
,” Mar. Mammal Sci.
15
, 65
–84
.53.
Leuchtenberger
,
C.
,
Sousa-Lima
,
R.
,
Duplaix
,
N.
,
Magnusson
,
W. E.
, and
Mourão
,
G.
(2014
). “
Vocal repertoire of the social giant otter
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
136
, 2861
–2875
.54.
Liaw
,
A.
, and
Wiener
,
M.
(2002
). “
Classification and regression by randomForest
,” R News
2
, 18
–22
.55.
Lilly
,
J. C.
, and
Miller
,
A. M.
(1961
). “
Vocal exchanges between dolphins
,” Science
134
, 1873
–1876
.56.
Lombard
,
E.
(1911
). “
Le signe de l'élévation de la voix” (“The sign of raising your voice
”), Ann. Mal. L'creille
37
, 101
–109
.57.
Macedonia
,
J. M.
(1993
). “
The vocal repertoire of the ringtailed lemur (Lemur catta)
,” Folia Primatol.
61
, 186
–217
.58.
Martin
,
M.
,
Gridley
,
T.
,
Harvey Elwen
,
S.
, and
Charrier
,
I.
(2021
). “
Vocal repertoire, micro-geographical variation and within-species acoustic partitioning in a highly colonial pinniped, the Cape fur seal
,” R. Soc. Open Sci.
8
, 202241
.59.
Martin
,
M. J.
,
Halliday
,
W. D.
,
Storrie
,
L.
,
Citta
,
J. J.
,
Dawson
,
J.
,
Hussey
,
N. E.
,
Juanes
,
F.
,
Loseto
,
L. L.
,
MacPhee
,
S. A.
,
Moore
,
L.
,
Nicoll
,
A.
,
O'Corry-Crowe
,
G.
, and
Insley
,
S. J.
(2023
). “
Exposure and behavioral responses of tagged beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) to ships in the Pacific Arctic
,” Mar. Mammal Sci.
39
, 387
–421
.60.
McGuire
,
T. L.
,
Himes Boor
,
G. K.
,
McClung
,
J. R.
,
Stephens
,
A. D.
,
Garner
,
C.
,
Shelden
,
K. E. W.
, and
Wright
,
B.
(2020
). “
Distribution and habitat use by endangered Cook Inlet beluga whales: Patterns observed during a photo‐identification study, 2005–2017
,” Aquat. Conserv.
30
, 2402
–2427
.61.
McShane
,
L. J.
,
Estes
,
J. A.
,
Riedman
,
M. L.
, and
Staedler
,
M. M.
(1995
). “
Repertoire, structure, and individual variation of vocalizations in the sea otter
,” J. Mammal.
76
, 414
–427
.62.
Mishima
,
Y.
,
Morisaka
,
T.
,
Itoh
,
M.
,
Matsuo
,
I.
,
Sakaguchi
,
A.
, and
Miyamoto
,
Y.
(2015
). “
Individuality embedded in the isolation calls of captive beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas)
,” Zool. Lett.
1
, 27
.63.
Mishima
,
Y.
,
Morisaka
,
T.
,
Mishima
,
Y.
,
Sunada
,
T.
, and
Miyamoto
,
Y.
(2018
). “
Redefinition and sexual difference of contact calls in belugas (Delphinapterus leucas)
,” Aquat. Mamm.
43
, 538
–554
.64.
Mooney
,
T. A.
,
Castellote
,
M.
,
Jones
,
I.
,
Rouse
,
N.
,
Rowles
,
T.
,
Mahoney
,
B.
, and
Goertz
,
C. E. C.
(2020
). “
Audiogram of a Cook Inlet beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas)
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
148
, 3141
–3148
.65.
Morisaka
,
T.
,
Yoshida
,
Y.
,
Akune
,
Y.
,
Mishima
,
H.
, and
Nishimoto
,
S.
(2013
). “
Exchange of ‘signature’ calls in captive belugas (Delphinapterus leucas)
,” J. Ethol.
31
, 141
–149
.66.
Murray
,
S. O.
,
Mercado
,
E.
, and
Roitblat
,
H. L.
(1998
). “
Characterizing the graded structure of false killer whale (Pseudorca crassidens) vocalizations
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
104
, 1679
–1688
.67.
National Marine Fisheries Service
(2016
). Recovery Plan for the Cook Inlet Beluga Whale (Delphinapterus Leucas)
(
National Marine Fisheries Service, Alaska Region, Protected Resources Division
,
Juneau, AK
).68.
National Marine Fisheries Service
(2018
).
2018 Revisions to: Technical guidance for assessing the effects of anthropogenic sound on marine mammal hearing (V 2.0): Underwater thresholds for onset of permanent and temporary threshold shifts
.
U.S. Dept. of Commer., National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
, Technical Memorandum NMFS-OPR-59, p. 167
.70.
O'Corry-Crowe
,
G.
,
Suydam
,
R.
,
Quakenbush
,
L.
,
Smith
,
T. G.
,
Lydersen
,
C.
,
Kovacs
,
K. M.
,
Orr
,
J.
,
Harwood
,
L.
,
Litovka
,
D.
, and
Ferrer
,
T.
(2020
). “
Group structure and kinship in beluga whale societies
,” Sci. Rep.
10
, 11462
.69.
O'Corry‐Crowe
,
G. M.
,
Suydam
,
R. S.
,
Rosenberg
,
A.
,
Frost
,
K. J.
, and
Dizon
,
A. E.
(1997
). “
Phylogeography, population structure and dispersal patterns of the beluga whale Delphinapterus leucas in the western Nearctic revealed by mitochondrial DNA
,” Mol. Ecol.
6
, 955
–970
.71.
Oksanen
,
J.
,
Blanchet
,
F. G.
,
Friendly
,
M.
,
Kindt
,
R.
,
Legendre
,
P.
, and
McGlinn
,
D.
(2022
). “
Vegan: Community ecology package
,” https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/vegan/index.html.72.
Panova
,
E.
, and
Agafonov
,
A.
(2023
). “
Possible occurrence of contact calls in all‐male groups of free‐ranging beluga whales
,” J. Zool.
320
, 29
–41
.73.
Panova
,
E.
,
Agafonov
,
A.
,
Belikov
,
R.
, and
Melnikova
,
F.
(2017
). “
Vocalizations of captive beluga whales, Delphinapterus leucas: Additional evidence for contact signature ‘mixed’ calls in belugas
,” Mar. Mammal Sci.
33
, 889
–903
.74.
Panova
,
E.
,
Agafonov
,
A.
,
Belikov
,
R.
, and
Melnikova
,
F.
(2019
). “
Characteristics and microgeographic variation of whistles from the vocal repertoire of beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) from the White Sea
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
146
, 681
–692
.75.
Papale
,
E.
,
Buffa
,
G.
,
Filiciotto
,
F.
,
Maccarrone
,
V.
,
Mazzola
,
S.
,
Ceraulo
,
M.
,
Giacoma
,
C.
, and
Buscaino
,
G.
(2015
). “
Biphonic calls as signature whistles in a free-ranging bottlenose dolphin
,” Bioacoustics
24
, 223
–231
.76.
Parsons
,
E. C. M.
(2017
). “
Impacts of Navy sonar on whales and dolphins: Now beyond a smoking gun?
,” Front. Mar. Sci.
4
, 295
.77.
Phillips
,
A. V.
, and
Stirling
,
I.
(2001
). “
Vocal repertoire of South American fur seals, Arctocephalus australis: Structure, function, and context
,” Can. J. Zool.
79
, 420
–437
.78.
Polasek
,
L.
(2021
). “
Foraging ecology and habitat use of cook inlet beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) final report
,” in ESA Section 6 Award #NA17NMF4720071
(
Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Marine Mammal Program
,
Juneau, AK
).79.
R Core Team
(2022
). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing
,
R Foundation for Statistical Computing
. https://www.R-project.org/.80.
Ridgway
,
S.
,
Samuelson Dibble
,
D.
,
Van Alstyne
,
K.
, and
Price
,
D.
(2015
). “
On doing two things at once: Dolphin brain and nose coordinate sonar clicks, buzzes, and emotional squeals with social sounds during fish capture
,” J. Exp. Biol.
218
, 3987
–3995
.81.
Rugh
,
D. J.
,
Shelden
,
K. E. W.
, and
Hobbs
,
R. C.
(2010
). “
Range contraction in a beluga whale population
,” Endang. Species Res.
12
, 69
–75
.82.
Saunders
,
D. A.
(1983
). “
Vocal repertoire and individual vocal recognition in the short-billed white-tailed black cokcatoo, Calyptorhynchus funereus latirostris CArnaby
,” Wildl. Res.
10
, 527
–536
.83.
Sayigh
,
L.
,
Quick
,
N.
,
Hastie
,
G.
, and
Tyack
,
P.
(2013
). “
Repeated call types in short-finned pilot whales, Globicephala macrohynchus
,” Mar. Mammal Sci.
29
, 312
–324
.84.
Sayigh
,
L. S.
,
Tyack
,
P. L.
,
Wells
,
R. S.
,
Solow
,
A. R.
,
Scott
,
M. D.
, and
Irvine
,
A. B.
(1999
). “
Individual recognition in wild bottlenose dolphins: A field test using playback experiments
,” Anim. Behav.
57
, 41
–50
.85.
Scheifele
,
P. M.
,
Andrew
,
S.
,
Cooper
,
R. A.
,
Darre
,
M.
,
Musiek
,
F. E.
, and
Max
,
L.
(2005
). “
Indication of a Lombard vocal response in the St. Lawrence River beluga
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
117
, 1486
–1492
.86.
Selbmann
,
A.
,
Deecke
,
V. B.
,
Filatova
,
O. A.
,
Fedutin
,
I. D.
,
Miller
,
P. J. O.
,
Simon
,
M.
,
Bowles
,
A. E.
,
Lyrholm
,
T.
,
Lacey
,
C.
,
Magnusdottir
,
E. E.
,
Maunder
,
W.
,
Wensveen
,
P. J.
,
Svavarsson
,
J.
, and
Samarra
,
F. I. P.
(2023
). “
Call type repertoire of killer whales (Orcinus orca) in Iceland and its variation across regions
,” Mar. Mammal Sci.
39
(4), 1136
–1160
.87.
Shapiro
,
A. D.
(2006
). “
Preliminary evidence for signature vocalizations among free-ranging narwhals (Monodon monoceros)
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
120
, 1695
–1705
.88.
Sharma
,
G. D.
, and
Burrell
,
D. C.
(1970
). “
Sedimentary environment and sediments of Cook Inlet, Alaska
,” Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. Bull.
54
, 647
–645
.89.
Sharpe
,
D. L.
,
Castellote
,
M.
,
Wade
,
P. R.
, and
Cornick
,
L. A.
(2019
). “
Call types of Bigg's killer whales (Orcinus orca) in western Alaska: Using vocal dialects to assess population structure
,” Bioacoustics
28
, 74
–99
.90.
Shelden
,
K. E. W.
,
Goetz
,
K. T.
,
Rugh
,
D. J.
,
Calkins
,
D. G.
,
Mahoney
,
B. A.
, and
Hobbs
,
R. C.
(2015
). “
Spatio-temporal changes in beluga whale, Delphinapterus leucas, distribution: Results from aerial surveys (1977-2014), opportunistic sightings (1975-2014), and satellite tagging (1999-2003) in cook inlet, Alaska
,” Mar. Fish. Rev.
77
, 1
–31
, available at https://spo.nmfs.noaa.gov/content/spatio-temporal-changes-beluga-whale-delphinapterus-leucas-distribution-results-aerial.91.
Shelden
,
K. E. W.
, and
Wade
,
P. R.
(2019
). “
Aerial surveys, distribution, abundance, and trend of belugas (Delphinapterus leucas) in Cook Inlet, Alaska, June 2018
,” Alaska Fisheries Science Center Processed Report No. 2019-09, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Seattle, WA.92.
Sjare
,
B. L.
, and
Smith
,
T. G.
(1986
). “
The vocal repertoire of white whales, Delphinapterus leucas, summering in Cunningham Inlet, Northwest Territories
,” Can. J. Zool.
64
, 407
–415
.93.
Small
,
R. J.
,
Brost
,
B.
,
Hooten
,
M.
,
Castellote
,
M.
, and
Mondragon
,
J.
(2017
). “
Potential for spatial displacement of Cook Inlet beluga whales by anthropogenic noise in critical habitat
,” Endang. Species Res.
32
, 43
–57
.94.
Therneau
,
T.
,
Atkinson
,
B.
, and
Ripley
,
B.
(2022
). “
Recursive partitioning and regression trees
,” https://cran.r-project.org/package=rpart.95.
Trejos-Araya
,
C.
, and
Barrantes
,
G.
(2014
). “
Natural history and acoustic repertoire of the large-footed finch (Pezopetes capitalis), an endemic, highland bird of Costa Rica and Western Panama
,” Ornitol. Neotrop.
25
, 261
–271
.96.
Tyack
,
P.
(1981
). “
Interactions between singing Hawaiian humpback whales and conspecifics nearby
,” Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol.
8
, 105
–116
.97.
Tyack
,
P. L.
, and
Janik
,
V. M.
(2013
). “
Effects of noise on acoustic signal production in marine mammals
,” in Animal Communication and Noise
, edited by
H.
Brumm
(
Springer
,
Berlin, Heidelberg
), Vol. 2, pp. 251
–271
.98.
U.S. Federal Register
(2000
).
Designating the Cook Inlet, Alaska, stock of beluga whale as depleted under the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA)
, No. FR 65, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, pp. 34590
–34597
.99.
U.S. Federal Register
(2008
).
Endangered and threatened species; endangered status for the Cook Inlet beluga whale
, No. 205, pp. 62919
–62930
.100.
U.S. Federal Register
(2011
).
Designation of critical habitat for Cook Inlet beluga whale
, No. 69, pp. 20180
–20214
.101.
Van Cise
,
A. M.
,
Roch
,
M. A.
,
Baird
,
R. W.
,
Aran Mooney
,
T.
, and
Barlow
,
J.
(2017
). “
Acoustic differentiation of Shiho- and Naisa-type short-finned pilot whales in the Pacific Ocean
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
141
, 737
–748
.102.
Van Parijs
,
S. M.
,
Lydersen
,
C.
, and
Kovacs
,
K. M.
(2003
). “
Sounds produced by individual white whales, Delphinapterus leucas, from Svalbard during capture (L)
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
113
, 57
–60
.103.
Vergara
,
V.
, and
Barrett-Lennard
,
L. G.
(2008
). “
Vocal development in a beluga calf (Delphinapterus leucas
),” Aquat. Mamm.
34
, 123
–143
.104.
Vergara
,
V.
,
Michaud
,
R.
, and
Barrett-Lennard
,
L.
(2010
). “
What can captive whales tell us about their wild counterparts? Identification, usage, and ontogeny of contact calls in belugas (Delphinapterus leucas)
,” Int. J. Comp. Psychol.
23
, 278
–309
.105.
Vergara
,
V.
, and
Mikus
,
M.
(2019
). “
Contact call diversity in natural beluga entrapments in an Arctic estuary: Preliminary evidence of vocal signatures in wild belugas
,” Mar. Mammal Sci.
35
, 434
–465
.106.
Vergara
,
V.
,
Wood
,
J.
,
Lesage
,
V.
,
Ames
,
A.
,
Mikus
,
M.-A.
, and
Michaud
,
R.
(2021
). “
Can you hear me? Impacts of underwater noise on communication space of adult, sub-adult and calf contact calls of endangered St. Lawrence belugas (Delphinapterus leucas)
,” Polar Res.
40
, 5521
.107.
Watkins
,
W. A.
(1966
). “
The harmonic interval: Fact or artifact in spectral analysis of pulse trains
,” Mar. Bio-Acoust.
2
, 15
–43
.108.
Weilgart
,
L.
, and
Whitehead
,
H.
(1997
). “
Group-specific dialects and geographical variation in coda repertoire in South Pacific sperm whales
,” Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol.
40
, 277
–2851
.109.
Whitehead
,
H.
,
Dillon
,
M.
,
Dufault
,
S.
,
Weilgart
,
L.
, and
Wright
,
J.
(1998
). “
Non-geographically based population structure of South Pacific sperm whales: Dialects, fluke-markings and genetics
,” J. Anim. Ecol.
67
, 253
–262
.110.
Yurk
,
H.
,
Barrett-Lennard
,
L.
,
Ford
,
J. K. B.
, and
Matkin
,
C. O.
(2002
). “
Cultural transmission within maternal lineages: Vocal clans in resident killer whales in southern Alaska
,” Anim. Behav.
63
, 1103
–1119
.© 2023 Acoustical Society of America.
2023
Acoustical Society of America
You do not currently have access to this content.
