The soundscape of the Northeast Pacific Ocean is studied with emphasis on frequencies in the range 63–125 Hz. A 34-year (1964–1998) increase and seasonal fluctuations (1994–2006) are investigated. This is achieved by developing a simple relationship between the total radiated power of all ocean sound sources and the spatially averaged mean-square sound pressure in terms of the average source factor, source depth, and sea surface temperature (SST). The formula so derived is used to predict fluctuations in the sound level in the range 63–125 Hz with an amplitude of 1.2 dB and a period of 1 year associated with seasonal variations in the SST, which controls the amount of sound energy trapped in the sound fixing and ranging (SOFAR) channel. Also investigated is an observed 5 dB increase in the same frequency range in the Northeast Pacific Ocean during the late 20th century [Andrew, Howe, Mercer, and Dzieciuch (2002). ARLO 3, 65–70]. The increase is explained by the increase in the total number of ocean-going ships and their average gross tonnage.
References
1.
Ainslie
, M. A.
, De Jong
, C. A. F.
, Dol
, H. S.
, Blacquière
, G.
, and Marasini
, C.
(2009
). “Assessment of natural and anthropogenic sound sources and acoustic propagation in the North Sea
,” TNO report DV2009 C085
(TNO
, Den Haag
), p. 64
, available at https://publications.tno.nl/publication/34618532/Zby01E/TNO-DV2009C085.pdf (Last viewed 2021-01-17).2.
Ainslie
, M. A.
(2010
). Principles of Sonar Performance Modeling
(Springer-Praxis
, Chichester
), pp. 60, 96, 575, 608
.3.
Ainslie
, M. A.
(2012
). “Potential causes of increasing low frequency ocean noise levels
,” Proc. Mtgs. Acoust.
12
(1
), 070004
.4.
Ainslie
, M. A.
(2013
). “Periodic changes in ambient noise: Possible causes and implications for long term prediction
,” in Proceedings of 1st International Conference on Underwater Acoustics
, 23–28 June 2013, Corfu, Greece, pp. 655
–662
.5.
Andrew
, R. K.
, Howe
, B. M.
, Mercer
, J. A.
, and Dzieciuch
, M. A.
(2002
). “Ocean ambient sound: Comparing the 1960s with the 1990s for a receiver off the Californian coast
,” ARLO
3
, 65
–70
.6.
Andrew
, R. K.
, Howe
, B. M.
, and Mercer
, J. A.
(2011
). “Long-time trends in ship traffic noise for four sites off the North American West Coast
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
129
, 642
–651
.7.
Bannister
, R. W.
(1986
). “Deep sound channel noise from high-latitude winds
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
79
, 41
–48
.8.
Brewer
, P. G.
, and Hester
, K.
(2009
). “Ocean acidification and the increasing transparency of the ocean to low-frequency sound
,” Oceanography
22
(4
), 86
–93
.9.
Burtenshaw
, J. C.
, Oleson
, E. M.
, Hildebrand
, J. A.
, McDonald
, M. A.
, Andrew
, R. K.
, Howe
, B. M.
, and Mercer
, J. A.
(2004
). “Acoustic and satellite remote sensing of blue whale seasonality and habitat in the Northeast Pacific
,” Deep Sea Res. Part II: Topical Stud. Oceanogr.
51
(10-11
), 967
–986
.10a.
Carey
, W. M.
, Evans
, R. B.
, Davis
, J. A.
, and Botseas
, G.
(2009
). “Deep-ocean vertical noise directionality
,” IEEE J. Oceanic Eng.
15
, 324
–334
.10.
Chapman
, N. R.
, and Price
, A.
(2011
). “Low frequency deep ocean ambient noise trend in the Northeast Pacific Ocean
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
129
, EL161
–EL165
.11.
Charette
, M. A.
, and Smith
, W. H.
(2010
). “The volume of Earth's ocean
,” Oceanography
23
(2
), 112
–114
.12.
Cooke
, J. G.
, and Zerbini
, A. N.
(2018
). “Eubalaena australis
,” The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018, e.T8153A50354147, available at (Last viewed 2021-02-03).13.
Costello
, M. J.
, Cheung
, A.
, and De Hauwere
, N.
(2010
). “Surface area and the seabed area, volume, depth, slope, and topographic variation for the world's seas, oceans, and countries
,” Environ. Sci. Technol.
44
(23
), 8821
–8828
.14.
Curtis
, K. R.
, Howe
, B. M.
, and Mercer
, J. A.
(1999
). “Low-frequency ambient sound in the North Pacific: Long time series observations
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
106
, 3189
–3200
.15.
Dashen
, R.
, and Munk
, W.
(1984
). “Three models of global ocean noise
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
76
, 540
–554
.16.
Dekeling
, R. P. A.
, Tasker
, M. L.
, Van der Graaf
, A. J.
, Ainslie
, M. A.
, Andersson
, M. H.
, André
, M.
, Borsani
, J. F.
, Brensing
, K.
, Castellote
, M.
, Cronin
, D.
, Dalen
, J.
, Folegot
, T.
, Leaper
, R.
, Pajala
, J.
, Redman
, P.
, Robinson
, S. P.
, Sigray
, P.
, Sutton
, G.
, Thomsen
, F.
, Werner
, S.
, Wittekind
, D.
, and Young
, J. V.
(2014
). “Monitoring Guidance for Underwater Noise in European Seas, Part III: Background Information and Annexes
,” JRC Scientific and Policy Report EUR 26556 EN
(Publications Office of the European Union
, Luxembourg
).17.
Farrokhrooz
, M.
, Wage
, K. E.
, Dzieciuch
, M. A.
, and Worcester
, P. F.
(2017
). “Vertical line array measurements of ambient noise in the North Pacific
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
141
, 1571
–1581
.18.
Francois
, R. E.
, and Garrison
, G. R.
(1982
). “Sound absorption based on ocean measurements. Part II: Boric acid contribution and equation for total absorption
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
72
, 1879
–1890
.19.
Frisk
, G. V.
(2012
). “Noiseonomics: The relationship between ambient noise levels in the sea and global economic trends
,” Sci. Rep.
2
, 1
–4
.21.
Gavrilov
, A. N.
, McCauley
, R. D.
, and Gedamke
, J.
(2012
). “Steady inter and intra-annual decrease in the vocalization frequency of Antarctic blue whales
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
131
, 4476
–4480
.23.
Harris
, P.
, Sotirakopoulos
, K.
, Robinson
, S.
, Wang
, L.
, and Livina
, V.
(2019
). “A statistical method for the evaluation of long term trends in underwater noise measurements
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
145
, 228
–242
.24.
Hester
, K. C.
, Peltzer
, E. T.
, and Brewer
, P. G.
(2008
). “Unanticipated consequences of ocean acidification: A noisier ocean at lower pH
,” Geophys. Res. Lett.
35
, L19601
, .25.
Hildebrand
, J. A.
(2009
). “Anthropogenic and natural sources of ambient noise in the ocean
,” Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser.
395
, 5
–20
.26.
International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships
(1969
). Admiralty and Maritime Law Guide
. London, 23 June, available at http://www.admiraltylawguide.com/conven/tonnage1969.html (last viewed 2019-12-28).27.
IEC
. (2014
). 61260-1:2014, Electroacoustics—Octave-band and fractional-octave-band filters—Part 1: Specifications
(International Electrotechnical Commission
, Geneva
).28.
International Association of Oil and Gas Producers
(2011
). “An overview of marine seismic operations
,” OGP Report No. 448
, International Association of Oil and Gas Producers, available at https://www.norskoljeoggass.no/contentassets/ae812078242441fb88b75ffc46e8f849/an-overview-of-marine-seismic-operations.pdf ((Last viewed 2020-07-05).29.
ISO
. (2017
). 18405:2017, Underwater Acoustics—Terminology
(International Organization for Standardization
, Geneva
).30.
Johnson
, N. L.
, Kotz
, S.
, and Balakrishnan
, N.
(1994
). Continuous univariate distributions, Volume 1
, 2nd ed. (Wiley
, New York
), Chap. 14.31.
Joseph
, J. E.
, and Chiu
, C.-S.
(2010
). “A computational assessment of the sensitivity of ambient noise level to ocean acidification
,” JASA Express Lett.
128
, EL144
–EL149
.32.
Kibblewhite
, A. C.
, and Hampton
, L. D.
(1980
). “A review of deep ocean sound attenuation data at very low frequencies
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
67
, 147
–157
.34.
McDonald
, M. A.
, Hildebrand
, J. A.
, and Webb
, S. C.
(1995
). “Blue and fin whales observed on a seafloor array in the Northeast Pacific
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
98
, 712
–721
.35.
McDonald
, M. A.
, Hildebrand
, J. A.
, and Wiggins
, S. M.
(2006
). “Increases in deep ocean ambient noise in the Northeast Pacific west of San Nicolas Island, California
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
120
, 711
–718
.36.
McDonald
, M. A.
, Hildebrand
, J. A.
, Wiggins
, S. M.
, and Ross
, D.
(2008
). “A 50 year comparison of ambient ocean noise near San Clemente Island: A bathymetrically complex coastal region off Southern California
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
124
, 1985
–1992
.37.
Medwin
, H.
(1975
). “Speed of sound in water: A simple equation for realistic parameters
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am
58
, 1318
–1319
.38.
Mellen
, R. H.
, Scheifele
, P. M.
, and Browning
, D. G.
(1987
). “Global model for sound absorption in sea water. Part II: Geosecs PH Data Analysis
,” (TR 7925), p. 6
.39.
Merchant
, N. D.
, Blondel
, P.
, Dakin
, D. T.
, and Dorocicz
, J.
(2012
). “Averaging underwater noise levels for environmental assessment of shipping
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
132
, EL343
–EL349
.40.
Miksis-Olds
, J. L.
, and Nichols
, S. M.
(2016
). “Is low frequency ocean sound increasing globally?
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
139
, 501
–511
.41.
Miksis-Olds
, J. L.
, Bradley
, D. L.
, and Maggie Niu
, X.
(2013
). “Decadal trends in Indian Ocean ambient sound
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
134
, 3464
–3475
.42.
National Marine Fisheries Service
(2020
). “BLUE WHALE (Balaenoptera musculus musculus): Eastern North Pacific Stock
,” available at https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/marine-mammal-protection/marine-mammal-stock-assessment-reports-species-stock#cetaceans–-large-whales (Last viewed 2021-01-17).43.
Pawlowicz
, R.
(2013
). “Key physical variables in the ocean: Temperature, salinity, and density
,” Nat. Educ. Knowl.
4
(4
), 1
–7
.44.
Pierce
, A. D.
(1989
). Acoustics: An Introduction to Its Physical Principles and Applications
(American Institute of Physics
, New York
), p. 39
.45.
Popper
, A. N.
, Hawkins
, A. D.
, Fay
, R. R.
, Mann
, D. A.
, Bartol
, S.
, Carlson
, T. J.
, Coombs
, S.
, Ellison
, W. T.
, Gentry
, R. L.
, Halvorsen
, M. B.
, Løkkeborg
, S.
, Rogers
, P. H.
, Southall
, B. L.
, Zeddies
, D. G.
, and Tavolga
, W. N.
(2014
). ASA S3/SC1. 4 TR-2014, “Sound exposure guidelines for fishes and sea turtles: A technical report prepared by ANSI-Accredited standards committee S3/SC1 and registered with ANSI
” (Springer, New York).46.
Prior
, M. K.
, Brown
, D. J.
, and Haralabus
, G.
(2011
). “Data features from long-term monitoring of ocean noise
,” in 4th International Conference and Exhibition on Underwater Acoustic Measurements: Technologies and Results,
Kos, Greece.47.
Prior
, M. K.
, Brown
, D. J.
, and Haralabus
, G.
(2012
). “Data features from long-term monitoring of ocean noise
,” in European Conference on Underwater Acoustics
, Edinburgh.48.
Richardson
, W. J.
, Greene
, C. R.
, Malme
, C. I.
, and Thomson
, D. H.
(1995
). Marine Mammals and Noise
(Academic
, San Diego
), Chap. 1, 9
–12
.49.
Ross
, D.
(2005
). “Ship sources of ambient noise
,” IEEE J. Ocean. Eng.
30
, 257
–261
.50.
Rouseff
, D.
, and Tang
, D.
(2010
). “Internal waves as a proposed mechanism for increasing ambient noise in an increasingly acidic ocean
,” JASA Express Lett.
127
, EL235
–EL239
.51.
Shipbuilders' Association of Japan
(2019
). “Shipbuilding_Statistics March 2019
,” from the Shipbuilders' Association of Japan, available at https://www.sajn.or.jp/files/view/articles_doc/src/addd344c6169359e87a5f39d64e02173.pdf (last viewed 2019-08-30).52.
Sertlek
, H. Ö.
, Slabbekoorn
, H.
, ten Cate
, C.
, and Ainslie
, M. A.
(2019
). “Source specific sound mapping: Spatial, temporal and spectral distribution of sound in the Dutch North Sea
,” Environ. Pollut.
247
, 1143
–1157
.53.
Signorini
, S. R.
, and McClain
, C. R.
(2012
). “Subtropical gyre variability as seen from satellites
,” Remote Sens. Lett.
3
(6
), 471
–479
.54.
Slabbekoorn
, H.
, Bouton
, N.
, van Opzeeland
, I.
, Coers
, A.
, ten Cate
, C.
, and Popper
, A. N.
(2010
). “A noisy spring: The impact of globally rising underwater sound levels on fish
,” Trends Ecol. Evol.
25
, 419
–427
.55.
Southall
, B. L.
, Bowles
, A. E.
, Ellison
, W. T.
, Finneran
, J. J.
, Gentry
, R. L.
, Greene
, C. R.
, Jr., Kastak
, D.
, Ketten
, D. R.
, Miller
, J. H.
, Nachtigall
, P. E.
, Richardson
, W. J.
, Thomas
, J. A.
, and Tyack
, P. L.
(2007
). “Marine mammal noise exposure criteria: Initial scientific recommendations
,” Aquatic Mammals
33
(4
), 411
–521
.56.
Southall
, B. L.
, Finneran
, J. J.
, Reichmuth
, C.
, Nachtigall
, P. E.
, Ketten
, D. R.
, Bowles
, A. E.
, Ellison
, W. T.
, Nowacek
, D. P.
, and Tyack
, P. L.
(2019
). “Marine mammal noise exposure criteria: Updated scientific recommendations for residual hearing effects
,” Aquatic Mammals
45
(2
), 125
–232
.58.
Udovydchenkov
, I. A.
, Duda
, T. F.
, Doney
, S. C.
, and Lima
, I. D.
(2010
). “Modeling deep ocean shipping noise in varying acidity conditions
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
128
, EL130
–EL136
.60.
Van der Graaf
, A. J.
, Ainslie
, M. A.
, André
, M.
, Brensing
, K.
, Dalen
, J.
, Dekeling
, R. P. A.
, Robinson
, S.
, Tasker
, M. L.
, Thomsen
, F.
, and Werner
, S.
(2012
). “European Marine Strategy Framework Directive—Good Environmental Status (MSFD GES): Report of the Technical Subgroup on Underwater noise and other forms of energy.
”61.
van der Schaar
, M.
, Ainslie
, M. A.
, Robinson
, S. P.
, Prior
, M. K.
, and André
, M.
(2014
). “Changes in 63 Hz third-octave band sound levels over 42 months recorded at four deep-ocean observatories
,” J. Mar. Syst.
130
, 4
–11
.63.
Wales
, S. C.
, and Diachok
, O. I.
(1981
). “Ambient noise vertical directionality in the northwest Atlantic
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
70
, 577
–582
.64.
Wales
, S. C.
, and Heitmeyer
, R. M.
(2002
). “An ensemble source spectra model for merchant ship-radiated noise
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
111
, 1211
–1231
.65.
Wang
, H.
, Li
, Y.
, Li
, Q.
, and Yu
, X.
(2019
). “Cluster analysis of deep water sound speed profiles in Indian Ocean
,” IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci.
310
(5
), p. 052048
.67.
Wenz
, G.
(1969
). “Low-frequency deep-water ambient noise along the Pacific Coast of the United States
,” U.S. Navy J. Underwater Acoust.
19
, 423
–444
.68.
Weston
, D. E.
(1980
). “Ambient noise depth‐dependence models and their relation to low‐frequency attenuation
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
67
, 530
–537
.70.
Wu
, Z.
, Huang
, N. E.
, Wallace
, J. M.
, Smoliak
, B. V.
, and Chen
, X.
(2011
). “On the time-varying trend in global-mean surface temperature
,” Clim. Dyn.
37
(3–4
), 759
–773
.71.
Yashayaev
, I. M.
, and Zveryaev
, I. I.
(2001
). “Climate of the seasonal cycle in the North Pacific and the North Atlantic oceans
,” Int. J. Climatol.
21
(4
), 401
–417
.© 2021 Acoustical Society of America.
2021
Acoustical Society of America
You do not currently have access to this content.
