Underwater sounds from human sources can have detrimental effects upon aquatic animals, including fishes. Thus, it is important to establish sound exposure criteria for fishes, setting out those levels of sound from different sources that have detrimental effects upon them, in order to support current and future protective regulations. This paper considers the gaps in information that must be resolved in order to establish reasonable sound exposure criteria for fishes. The vulnerability of fishes is affected by the characteristics of underwater sounds, which must be taken into account when evaluating effects. The effects that need to be considered include death and injuries, physiological effects, and changes in behavior. Strong emphasis in assessing the effects of sounds has been placed upon the hearing abilities of fishes. However, although hearing has to be taken into account, other actual effects also have to be considered. This paper considers the information gaps that must be filled for the development of future guidelines and criteria.

1.
Anderson
,
J. J.
(
2000
). “
A vitality-based model relating stressors and environmental properties to organism survival
,”
Ecol. Monogr.
70
,
445
470
.
2.
Anderson
,
J. J.
,
Gildea
,
M. C.
,
Williams
,
D. W.
, and
Li
,
T.
(
2008
). “
Linking growth, survival, and heterogeneity through vitality
,”
Am. Naturalist
171
,
E20
E43
.
3.
Andersson
,
M. H.
,
Andersson
,
S.
,
Ahlsen
,
J.
,
Andersoson
,
B. L.
,
Hammar
,
J.
,
Persson
,
L. K.
,
Pihl
,
J.
,
Sigray
,
P.
, and
Wisstrom
,
A.
(
2017
). “
A framework for regulating underwater noise during pile driving. A technical Vindal report
,” Environmental Protection Agency, Stockholm, Sweden.
4.
Bass
,
A. H.
, and
Ladich
,
F.
(
2008
). “
Vocal-acoustic communication: From neurons to brain
,” in
Fish Bioacoustics
, edited by
J. F.
Webb
,
R. R.
Fay
, and
A. N.
Popper
(
Springer Science+Business Media
,
LLC, New York
), pp.
253
278
.
5.
Booth
,
C.
,
Donovan
,
C.
,
King
,
S.
, and
Schick
,
R.
(
2014
).
A Protocol for Implementing the Interim Population Consequences of Disturbance (PCoD) Approach: Quantifying and Assessing the Effects of UK Offshore Renewable Energy Developments on Marine Mammal Populations
(
Marine Scotland
,
Edinburgh, YK
), p.
90
.
6.
Bruintjes
,
R.
, and
Radford
,
A. N.
(
2013
). “
Context-dependent impacts of anthropogenic noise on individual and social behaviour in a cooperatively breeding fish
,”
Animal Behav.
85
,
1343
1349
.
7.
Calder
,
B. J.
,
Phillips
,
L. W.
, and
Tybout
,
A. M.
(
1982
). “
The concept of external validity
,”
J. Consumer Res.
9
,
240
244
.
8.
Campbell
,
J.
(
2019
). “
Particle motion and sound pressure in fish tanks: A behavioural exploration of acoustic sensitivity in the zebrafish
,”
Behav. Process.
164
,
38
47
.
9.
Chapman
,
C. J.
, and
Hawkins
,
A.
(
1973
). “
A field study of hearing in the cod, Gadus morhua L
,”
J. Compar. Physiol.
85
,
147
167
.
10.
Christiansen
,
F.
, and
Lusseau
,
D.
(
2015
). “
Linking behavior to vital rates to measure the effects of non-lethal disturbance on wildlife
,”
Conserv. Lett.
8
,
424
431
.
11.
Davis
,
R. I.
,
Qiu
,
W.
, and
Hamernik
,
R. P.
(
2009
). “
Role of the kurtosis statistic in evaluating complex noise exposures for the protection of hearing
,”
Ear Hear.
30
,
628
634
.
12.
Duncan
,
A. J.
,
Lucke
,
K.
,
Erbe
,
C.
, and
McCauley
,
R. D.
(
2016
). “
Issues associated with sound exposure experiments in tanks
,”
Proc. Mtgs. Acoust.
27
,
070008
.
13.
Ellison
,
W. T.
,
Southall
,
B. L.
,
Clark
,
C. W.
, and
Frankel
,
A. S.
(
2012
). “
A new context-based approach to assess marine mammal behavioral responses to anthropogenic sounds
,”
Conserv. Biol.
26
,
21
28
.
14.
EPA
(
1998
). “
Guidelines for ecological risk assessment
,”
Fed. Reg.
83
,
26846
26924
.
15.
Erbe
,
C.
(
2013
). “
International regulation of underwater noise
,”
Acoust. Aust.
41
,
12
19
.
16.
Faulkner
,
R. C.
,
Farcas
,
A.
, and
Merchant
,
N. D.
(
2018
). “
Guiding principles for assessing the impact of underwater noise
,”
J. Appl. Ecol.
55
,
2531
2536
.
17.
Fay
,
R. R.
(
1980
). “
Psychophysics and neurophysiology of temporal factors in hearing by the goldfish: Amplitude modulation detection
,”
J. Neurophysiol.
44
,
312
332
.
18.
Fay
,
R. R.
(
1985
). “
Sound intensity processing by the goldfish
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
78
,
1296
1309
.
19.
Fay
,
R. R.
(
1988a
). “
Comparative psychoacoustics
,”
Hear. Res.
34
,
295
305
.
20.
Fay
,
R. R.
(
1988b
).
Hearing in Vertebrates: A Psychophysics Databook
(
Hill-Fay Associates
,
Winnetka, IL
).
21.
Fay
,
R. R.
(
1989
). “
Frequency discrimination in the goldfish (Carassius auratus): Effects of roving intensity, sensation level, and the direction of frequency change
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
85
,
503
505
.
22.
Fay
,
R. R.
(
1998a
). “
Auditory stream segregation in goldfish (Carassius auratus)
,”
Hear. Res.
120
,
69
76
.
23.
Fay
,
R. R.
(
1998b
). “
Perception of two-tone complexes by the goldfish (Carassius auratus)
,”
Hear. Res.
120
,
17
24
.
24.
Fay
,
R. R.
(
2009
). “
Soundscapes and the sense of hearing of fishes
,”
Integr. Zool.
4
,
26
32
.
25.
Fay
,
R. R.
, and
Coombs
,
S. L.
(
1992
). “
Psychometric functions for level discrimination and the effects of signal duration in the goldfish (Carassius auratus): Psychophysics and neurophysiology
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
92
,
189
201
.
26.
Fay
,
R. R.
, and
Megela Simmons
,
A.
(
1999
). “
The sense of hearing in fishes and amphibians
,” in
Comparative Hearing: Fish and Amphibians
, edited by
R. R.
Fay
and
A. N.
Popper
(
Springer-Verlag
,
New York
), pp.
269
318
.
27.
Fay
,
R. R.
, and
Passow
,
B.
(
1982
). “
Temporal discrimination in the goldfish
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
72
,
753
760
.
28.
Fisheries Hydroacoustic Working Group
(
2008
). “
Memorandum, agreement in principle for interim criteria for injury to fish from pile driving activities
” (NOAA's Fisheries Northwest and Southwest Regions, US Fish and Wildlife Service Regions 1 and 8, California/Washington/Oregon Departments of Transportation, California Department of Fish and Game, US Federal Highway Administration).
29.
Gidna
,
A.
,
Yravedra
,
J.
, and
Domínguez-Rodrigo
,
M.
(
2013
). “
A cautionary note on the use of captive carnivores to model wild predator behavior: A comparison of bone modification patterns on long bones by captive and wild lions
,”
J. Archaeol. Sci.
40
,
1903
1910
.
30.
Gill
,
J. A.
,
Norris
,
K.
, and
Sutherland
,
W. J.
(
2001
). “
Why behavioural responses may not reflect the population consequences of human disturbance
,”
Biol. Conserv.
97
,
265
268
.
31.
Gill
,
J. A.
, and
Sutherland
,
W. J.
(
2000
). “
Predicting the consequences of human disturbance from behavioral decisions
,” in
Behaviour and Conservation
, edited by
L. M.
Gosling
and
W. J.
Sutherland
(
Cambridge University Press
,
Cambridge, UK
), pp.
51
64
.
32.
Goley
,
G. S.
,
Song
,
W. J.
, and
Kim
,
J. H.
(
2011
). “
Kurtosis corrected sound pressure level as a noise metric for risk assessment of occupational noises
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
129
,
1475
1481
.
33.
Halvorsen
,
M. B.
,
Casper
,
B. M.
,
Woodley
,
C. M.
,
Carlson
,
T. J.
, and
Popper
,
A. N.
(
2012
). “
Threshold for onset of injury in Chinook salmon from exposure to impulsive pile driving sounds
,”
PLoS One
7
,
e38968
.
34.
Hamernik
,
R. P.
,
Qiu
,
W.
, and
Davis
,
B.
(
2003
). “
The effects of the amplitude distribution of equal energy exposures on noise-induced hearing loss: The kurtosis metric
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
114
,
386
395
.
35.
Hamernik
,
R. P.
,
Qiu
,
W.
, and
Davis
,
B.
(
2007
). “
Hearing loss from interrupted, intermittent, and time varying non-Gaussian noise exposure: The applicability of the equal energy hypothesis
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
122
,
2245
2254
.
36.
Harris
,
C. M.
(
1998
). “
Chapter 1. Introduction
,” in
Handbook of acoustical measurements and noise control
, edited by
C. M.
Harris
(
Acoustical Society of America, Woodbury
,
New York
), pp.
1.1
1.29
.
37.
Harris
,
G. G.
, and
van Bergeijk
,
W. A.
(
1962
). “
Evidence that the lateral-line organ responds to near-field displacements of sound sources in water
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
34
,
1831
1841
.
38.
Hastings
,
M. C.
(
2008
). “
Coming to terms with the effects of ocean noise on marine animals
,”
Acoust. Today
4
,
22
34
.
39.
Hawkins
,
A. D.
(
2014
). “
Examining fish in the sea: A European perspective on fish hearing experiments
,” in
Perspectives on Auditory Research
, edited by
A. N.
Popper
and
R. R.
Fay
(
Springer
,
New York
), pp.
247
267
.
40.
Hawkins
,
A. D.
,
Pembroke
,
A.
, and
Popper
,
A.
(
2015
). “
Information gaps in understanding the effects of noise on fishes and invertebrates
,”
Rev. Fish Biol. Fisheries
25
,
39
64
.
41.
Hawkins
,
A. D.
, and
Popper
,
A. N.
(
2016
). “
A sound approach to assessing the impact of underwater noise on marine fishes and invertebrates
,”
ICES J. Mar. Sci.
74
,
635
671
.
42.
Hawkins
,
A. D.
, and
Popper
,
A. N.
(
2018
). “
Effects of man-made sound on fishes
,” in
Effects of Anthropogenic Noise on Animals
, edited by
H.
Slabbekoorn
,
R. J.
Dooling
,
A. N.
Popper
, and
R. R.
Fay
(
Springer Nature
,
New York
), pp.
145
177
.
43.
Hawkins
,
A. D.
,
Roberts
,
L.
, and
Cheesman
,
S.
(
2014
). “
Responses of free-living coastal pelagic fish to impulsive sounds
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
135
,
3101
3116
.
44.
Hazelwood
,
R. A.
, and
Macey
,
P. C.
(
2016
). “
Modeling water motion near seismic waves propagating across a graded seabed, as generated by man-made impacts
,”
J. Mar. Sci. Eng.
4
,
47
61
.
45.
Henderson
,
D.
, and
Hamernik
,
R. P.
(
2012
). “
The use of kurtosis measurement in the assessment of potential noise trauma
,” in
Noise-Induced Hearing Loss: Scientific Advances
, edited by
C. G.
Le Prell
,
D.
Henderson
,
R. R.
Fay
, and
A. N.
Popper
(
Springer
,
New York
), pp.
41
55
.
46.
IPCS
(
2004
). “
IPCS Risk Assessment Terminology (Part 1: IPCS/OECD Key Generic terms used in Chemical Hazard/Risk Assessment
,” IPCS, Geneva, Switzerland.
47.
Jacobs
,
D. W.
, and
Tavolga
,
W. N.
(
1967
). “
Acoustic intensity limens in the goldfish
,”
Animal Behav.
15
,
324
335
.
48.
Jacobs
,
D. W.
, and
Tavolga
,
W. N.
(
1968
). “
Acoustic frequency discrimination in the goldfish
,”
Animal Behav.
16
,
67
71
.
49.
Johnson
,
D. H.
(
1999
). “
The insignificance of statistical significance testing
,”
J. Wildlife Manage.
63
,
763
772
.
50.
Kayser
,
C.
,
Petkov
,
C. I.
,
Lippert
,
M.
, and
Logothetis
,
N. K.
(
2005
). “
Mechanisms for allocating auditory attention: An auditory saliency map
,”
Curr. Biol.
15
,
1943
1947
.
51.
King
,
S. L.
,
Schick
,
R. S.
,
Donovan
,
C.
,
Booth
,
C. G.
,
Burgman
,
M.
,
Thomas
,
L.
, and
Harwood
,
J.
(
2015
). “
An interim framework for assessing the population consequences of disturbance
,”
Methods Ecol. Evol.
6
,
1150
1158
.
52.
Knudsen
,
E. I.
(
2007
). “
Fundamental components of attention
,”
Ann. Rev. Neurosci.
30
,
57
78
.
53.
Kooijman
,
B.
, and
Kooijman
,
S.
(
2010
).
Dynamic Energy Budget Theory for Metabolic Organisation
(
Cambridge University Press
,
Cambridge, UK
).
54.
Kugler
,
S.
,
Bohlen
,
T.
,
Forbriger
,
T.
,
Bussat
,
S.
, and
Klein
,
G.
(
2007
). “
Scholte-wave tomography for shallow-water marine sediments
,”
Geophys. J. Int.
168
,
551
570
.
55.
Ladich
,
F.
, and
Fay
,
R. R.
(
2013
). “
Auditory evoked potential audiometry in fish
,”
Rev. Fish Biol. Fisheries
23
,
317
364
.
56.
Ladich
,
F.
, and
Schleinzer
,
G.
(
2015
). “
Effect of temperature on acoustic communication: Sound production in the croaking gourami (labyrinth fishes)
,”
Compar. Biochem. Physiol. Part A
182
,
8
13
.
57.
Lumsdon
,
A. E.
,
Artamonov
,
I.
,
Bruno
,
M. C.
,
Righetti
,
M.
,
Tockner
,
K.
,
Tonolla
,
D.
, and
Zarfl
,
C.
(
2018
). “
Soundpeaking—Hydropeaking induced changes in river soundscapes
,”
River Res. Appl.
34
,
3
12
.
58.
Mangel
,
M.
, and
Clark
,
C. W.
(
1988
).
Dynamic Modeling in Behavioral Ecology
(
Princeton University Press
,
Princeton, NJ)
.
59.
Martin
,
S. B.
, and
Popper
,
A. N.
(
2016
). “
Short- and long-term monitoring of underwater sound levels in the Hudson River (New York, USA)
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
139
,
1886
1897
.
60.
Matt
,
G. E.
, and
Cook
,
T. D.
(
2009
). “
Threats to the validity of generalized inferences
,” in
The Handbook of Research Synthesis and Meta-Analysis
, 2nd ed. (
Russell Sage Foundation
,
New York)
, pp.
537
560
.
61.
McNamara
,
J. M.
, and
Houston
,
A. I.
(
1986
). “
The common currency for behavioral decisions
,”
Am. Naturalist
127
,
358
378
.
62.
Mooney
,
T. A.
,
Kaplan
,
M. B.
, and
Lammers
,
M. O.
(
2016
). “
Singing whales generate high levels of particle motion: Implications for acoustic communication and hearing?
,”
Biol. Lett.
12
,
20160381
.
63.
Nakagawa
,
S.
, and
Cuthill
,
I. C.
(
2007
). “
Effect size, confidence interval and statistical significance: A practical guide for biologists
,”
Biol. Rev. Cambridge Philos. Soc.
82
,
591
605
.
64.
National Research Council
(
2005
).
Marine Mammal Populations and Ocean Noise: Determining When Noise Causes Biologically Significant Effects
(
National Academy Press
,
Washington, DC
).
65.
Nedelec
,
S. L.
,
Campbell
,
J.
,
Radford
,
A. N.
,
Simpson
,
S. D.
, and
Merchant
,
N. D.
(
2016
). “
Particle motion: The missing link in underwater acoustic ecology
,”
Methods Ecol. Evol.
7
,
836
842
.
66.
Nedwell
,
J. R.
,
Turnpenny
,
A. W. H.
,
Lovell
,
J.
,
Parvin
,
S. J.
,
Workman
,
R.
,
Sprinks
,
J.
, and
Howell
,
D.
(
2007
). “
A validation of the dBht as a measure of the behavioural and auditory effects of underwater noise
,” Report by Subacoustech Ltd, Southampton, UK, p.
78
.
67.
NMFS
(
2018
). “
2018 Revisions to: Technical Guidance for Assessing the Effects of Anthropogenic Sound on Marine Mammal Hearing (Version 2.0): Underwater Thresholds for Onset of Permanent and Temporary Threshold Shifts
,” US Department of Commerce, Washington, DC, p.
167
.
68.
Normandeau
(
2012
). “
Effects of noise on fish, fisheries, and invertebrates in the US Atlantic and Arctic from energy industry sound-generating activities
,” Workshop Report, US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Washington, DC.
69.
Parkin
,
R. T.
, and
Balbus
,
J. M.
(
2000
). “
Variations in concepts of ‘susceptibility’ in risk assessment
,”
Risk Anal.
20
,
603
612
.
70.
Popper
,
A. N.
, and
Fay
,
R. R.
(
2011
). “
Rethinking sound detection by fishes
,”
Hear. Res.
273
,
25
36
.
71.
Popper
,
A. N.
,
Halvorsen
,
M. B.
,
Kane
,
A. S.
,
Miller
,
D. L.
,
Smith
,
M. E.
,
Song
,
J.
,
Stein
,
P.
, and
Wysocki
,
L. E.
(
2007
). “
The effects of high-intensity, low-frequency active sonar on rainbow trout
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
122
,
623
635
.
72.
Popper
,
A. N.
, and
Hastings
,
M. C.
(
2009
). “
The effects of anthropogenic sources of sound on fishes
,”
J. Fish Biol.
75
,
455
489
.
73.
Popper
,
A. N.
, and
Hawkins
,
A. D.
(
2018
). “
The importance of particle motion to fishes and invertebrates
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
143
,
470
486
.
74.
Popper
,
A. N.
, and
Hawkins
,
A. D.
(
2019
). “
An overview of fish bioacoustics and the impacts of anthropogenic sounds on fishes
,”
J. Fish Biol.
94
,
692
713
.
75.
Popper
,
A. N.
,
Hawkins
,
A. D.
,
Fay
,
R. R.
,
Mann
,
D. A.
,
Bartol
,
S.
,
Carlson
,
T. J.
,
Coombs
,
S.
,
Ellison
,
W. T.
,
Gentry
,
R. L.
,
Halvorsen
,
M. B.
,
Lokkeborg
,
S.
,
Rogers
,
P. H.
,
Southall
,
B.
,
Zeddies
,
D.
, and
Tavolga
,
W. A.
(
2014
).
ASA S3/SC1. 4 TR-2014 Sound Exposure Guidelines for Fishes and Sea Turtles: A Technical Report prepared by ANSI-Accredited Standards Committee S3/SC1 and registered with ANSI
(
Springer
,
New York
).
76.
Popper
,
A. N.
,
Hawkins
,
A. D.
, and
Halvorsen
,
M. B.
(
2019a
). “
Anthropogenic sound and fishes
,” Washington State Department of Transportation, Olympia, WA.
77.
Popper
,
A. N.
,
Hawkins
,
A. D.
,
Sand
,
O.
, and
Sisneros
,
J. A.
(
2019b
). “
Examining the hearing abilities of fishes
,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
146
,
948
955
.
78.
Prior
,
M. K.
,
Duncan
,
A. J.
,
Sertlek
,
H. Ö.
, and
Ainslie
,
M. A.
(
2019
). “
Modeling acoustical pressure and particle acceleration close to marine seismic airguns and airgun arrays
,”
IEEE J. Oceanic Eng.
44
,
611
620
.
79.
Roberts
,
L.
,
Pérez-Domínguez
,
R.
, and
Elliott
,
M.
(
2016
). “
Use of baited remote underwater video (BRUV) and motion analysis for studying the impacts of underwater noise upon free ranging fish and implications for marine energy management
,”
Mar. Pollut. Bull.
112
,
75
85
.
80.
Rogers
,
P. H.
, and
Cox
,
M.
(
1988
). “
Underwater sound as a biological stimulus
,” in
Sensory Biology of Aquatic Animals
, edited by
J.
Atema
,
R. R.
Fay
,
A. N.
Popper
, and
W. N.
Tavolga
(
Springer-Verlag
,
New York)
, pp.
131
149
.
81.
Rogers
,
P. H.
,
Hawkins
,
A. D.
,
Popper
,
A. N.
,
Fay
,
R. R.
, and
Gray
,
M. D.
(
2016
). “
Parvulescu revisited: Small tank acoustics for bioacousticians
,” in
The Effects of Noise on Aquatic Life II
, edited by
A. N.
Popper
, and
A. D.
Hawkins
(
Springer Science+Business Media
,
New York)
, pp.
933
941
.
82.
Rossington
,
K.
,
Benson
,
T.
,
Lepper
,
P.
, and
Jones
,
D.
(
2013
). “
Eco-hydro-acoustic modeling and its use as an EIA tool
,”
Mar. Pollut. Bull.
75
,
235
243
.
83.
Sertlek
,
H. Ö.
,
Slabbekoorn
,
H.
,
ten Cate
,
C.
, and
Ainslie
,
M. A.
(
2019
). “
Source specific sound mapping: Spatial, temporal and spectral distribution of sound in the Dutch North Sea
,”
Environ. Pollut.
247
,
1143
1157
.
84.
Shannon
,
G.
,
McKenna
,
M. F.
,
Angeloni
,
L. M.
,
Crooks
,
K. R.
,
Fristrup
,
K. M.
,
Brown
,
E.
,
Warner
,
K. A.
,
Nelson
,
M. D.
,
White
,
C.
,
Briggs
,
J.
,
McFarland
,
S.
, and
Wittemyer
,
G.
(
2016
). “
A synthesis of two decades of research documenting the effects of noise on wildlife
,”
Biol. Rev. Cambridge Philos. Soc.
91
,
982
1005
.
85.
Sivle
,
L. D.
,
Kvadsheim
,
P. H.
, and
Ainslie
,
M. A.
(
2015
). “
Potential for population-level disturbance by active sonar in herring
,”
ICES J. Mar. Sci.
72
,
558
567
.
86.
Slabbekoorn
,
H.
,
Bouton
,
N.
,
van Opzeeland
,
I.
,
Coers
,
A.
,
ten Cate
,
C.
, and
Popper
,
A. N.
(
2010
). “
A noisy spring: The impact of globally rising underwater sound levels on fish
,”
Trends Ecol. Evol.
25
,
419
427
.
87.
Slabbekoorn
,
H.
,
Dalen
,
J.
,
de Haan
,
D.
,
Winter
,
H. V.
,
Radford
,
C.
,
Ainslie
,
M. A.
,
Heaney
,
K. D.
,
van Kooten
,
T.
,
Thomas
,
L.
, and
Harwood
,
J.
(
2019
). “
Population-level consequences of seismic surveys on fishes: An interdisciplinary challenge
,”
Fish Fisheries
20
,
653
685
.
88.
Southall
,
B. L.
,
Bowles
,
A. E.
,
Ellison
,
W. T.
,
Finneran
,
J. J.
,
Gentry
,
R. L.
,
Greene
,
C. R.
, Jr.
,
Kastak
,
D.
,
Ketten
,
D. R.
,
Miller
,
J. H.
,
Nachtigall
,
P. E.
,
Richardson
,
W. J.
,
Thomas
,
J. A.
, and
Tyack
,
P. L.
(
2007
). “
Marine mammal noise exposure criteria: Initial scientific recommendations
,”
Aquatic Mam.
33
,
411
521
.
89.
Southall
,
B. L.
,
Finneran
,
J. J.
,
Rcichmuth
,
C.
,
Nachtigall
,
P. E.
,
Ketten
,
D. R.
,
Bowles
,
A. E.
,
Ellison
,
W. T.
,
Nowacek
,
D. P.
, and
Tyack
,
P. L.
(
2019
). “
Marine mammal noise exposure criteria: Updated scientific recommendations for residual hearing effects
,”
Aquatic Mam.
45
,
125
232
.
90.
Steidl
,
R. J.
,
Hayes
,
J. P.
, and
Schauber
,
E.
(
1997
). “
Statistical power analysis in wildlife research
,”
J. Wildlife Manage.
61
,
270
279
.
91.
Suter
,
G.
, and
Glen
,
W.
(
1993
).
Ecological Risk Assessment
(
Lewis Publishers
,
Boca Raton, FL
).
92.
Thériault
,
J. A.
, and
Moors-Murphy
,
H. B.
(
2015
).
Species at Risk Criteria and Seismic—Survey Noise Thresholds for Cetaceans
(
Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat
,
Ottawa, Canada
).
93.
UNEP
(
2017
). “
Adverse impacts of anthropogenic noise on cetaceans and other migratory species
,” https://www.cms.int/sites/default/files/document/cms_cop12_res.12.14_marine-noise_e.pdf (Last viewed 3/10/2020).
94.
Valentine
,
J. C.
(
2009
). “
Judging the quality of primary research
,”
Handbook Res. Synth. Meta-anal.
2
,
129
146
.
95.
van Bergeijk
,
W. A.
(
1964
). “
Directional and nondirectional hearing in fish
,” in
Marine Bio-Acoustics
, edited by
W. A.
Tavolga
(
Pergamon
,
New York
), pp.
281
299
.
96.
Wright
,
A. J.
,
Soto
,
N. A.
,
Baldwin
,
A. L.
,
Bateson
,
M.
,
Beale
,
C. M.
,
Clark
,
C.
,
Deak
,
T.
,
Edwards
,
E. F.
,
Fernández
,
A.
, and
Godinho
,
A.
(
2007
). “
Anthropogenic noise as a stressor in animals: A multidisciplinary perspective
,”
Int. J. Compar. Psychol.
20
,
250
273
.
97.
Wysocki
,
L. E.
,
Davidson Iii
,
J. W.
,
Smith
,
M. E.
,
Frankel
,
A. S.
,
Ellison
,
W. T.
,
Mazik
,
P. M.
,
Popper
,
A. N.
, and
Bebak
,
J.
(
2007
). “
Effects of aquaculture production noise on hearing, growth, and disease resistance of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss
,”
Aquaculture
272
,
687
697
.
98.
Wysocki
,
L. E.
,
Montey
,
K.
, and
Popper
,
A. N.
(
2009
). “
The influence of ambient temperature and thermal acclimation on hearing in a eurythermal and a stenothermal otophysan fish
,”
J. Exp. Biol.
212
,
3091
3099
.
99.
Yan
,
H. Y.
, and
Popper
,
A. N.
(
1993
). “
Acoustic intensity discrimination by the cichlid fish Astronotus ocellatus (Cuvier)
,”
J. Compar. Physiol. A
173
,
347
351
.
100.
Zhao
,
F.
,
Manchaiah
,
V. K.
,
French
,
D.
, and
Price
,
S. M.
(
2010
). “
Music exposure and hearing disorders: An overview
,”
Int. J. Audiol.
49
,
54
64
.
You do not currently have access to this content.