In the current study, an interactive approach is used to explore possible contributors to the misattributions listeners make about female talker expression of confidence. To do this, the expression and identification of confidence was evaluated through the evaluation of talker- (e.g., talker knowledge and affective acoustic modulation) and listener-specific factors (e.g., interaction between talker acoustic cues and listener knowledge). Talker and listener contexts were manipulated by implementing a social constraint for talkers and withholding information from listeners. Results indicated that listeners were sensitive to acoustic information produced by the female talkers in this study. However, when world knowledge and acoustics competed, judgments of talker confidence by listeners were less accurate. In fact, acoustic cues to female talker confidence were more accurately used by listeners as a cue to perceived confidence when relevant world knowledge was missing. By targeting speech dynamics between female talkers and both female and male listeners, the current study provides a better understanding of how confidence is realized acoustically and, perhaps more importantly, how those cues may be interpreted/misinterpreted by listeners.
References
1.
Amanatullah
, E. T.
, and Tinsley
, C. H.
(2013
). “Punishing female negotiators for asserting too much or not enough: Exploring why advocacy moderates backlash against assertive female negotiators
,” Organ Behav. Hum. Decis. Process
120
(1
), 110
–122
.2.
American Nursing Association
(2014
). “Fast facts: The nursing workforce 2014: Growth, salaries, education, demographics, and trends
,” available at https://www.nursingworld.org/~4afac8/globalassets/practiceandpolicy/workforce/fastfacts_nsgjobgrowth-salaries_updated8-25-15.pdf (Last viewed May 30, 2019).3.
American Speech-Language and Hearing Association
. (2015
). “Highlights and trends: Member and affiliate counts, year end
,” available at http://www.asha.org/uploadedFiles/2015-Member-Counts.pdf (Last viewed May 30, 2019).4.
Anderson
, C.
, Brion
, S.
, Moore
, D. A.
, and Kennedy
, J. A.
(2012
). “A status-enhancement account of overconfidence
,” J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.
103
(4
), 718
–735
.5.
Ashcraft
, K. L.
(2013
). “Feminist theory
,” in The Sage Handbook of Organizational Communication: Advances in Theory, Research, and Methods
, edited by L.
Putnam
and D.
Mumby
(Sage
, London
), pp. 127
–150
.6.
Ashcraft
, K. L.
, and Pacanowsky
, M. E.
(1996
). “A woman's worst enemy: Reflections on a narrative of organizational life and female identity
,” J. Appl. Commun. Res.
24
, 217
–239
.7.
Bachorowski
, J.-A.
(1999
). “Vocal expression and perception of emotion
,” Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci.
8
(2
), 53
–57
.8.
Bachorowski
, J.-A.
, and Owren
, M. J.
(1995
). “Vocal expression of emotion is associated with formant characteristics
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
98
(5
), 219
–224
.9.
Banse
, R.
, and Scherer
, K. R.
(1996
). “Acoustic profiles in vocal emotion expression
,” J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.
70
(3
), 614
–636
.10.
Bänziger
, T.
, and Scherer
, K. R.
(2005
). “The role of intonation in emotional expressions
,” Speech Commun.
46
, 252
–267
.11.
Barr
, D. J.
, and Keysar
, B.
(2005
). “Making sense of how we make sense: The paradox of egocentrism in language use
,” in Figurative Language Comprehension: Social and Cultural Influences
, edited by H.
Colston
and A.
Katz
(Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
, London
), pp. 21
–41
.12.
Barr
, D. J.
, Levy
, R.
, Scheepers
, C.
, and Tily
, H. J.
(2013
). “Random effects structure for confirmatory hypothesis testing: Keep it maximal
,” J. Mem. Lang.
68
(3
), 255
–278
.13.
Boersma
, P.
, and Weenink
, D.
(2007
). “Praat: Doing phonetics by computer (version 4.5.) [computer program]
,” available at http://www.praat.org/ (Last viewed May 30, 2019).14.
Booth-Butterfield
, S.
, and Gutowski
, C.
(1993
). “Message modality and source credibility can interact to affect argument processing
,” Commun. Q.
41
, 77
–89
.15.
Brainard
, D. H.
(1997
). “The Psychophysics Toolbox
,” Spat Vis.
10
, 433
–436
.16.
Brennan
, S. E.
, and Williams
, M.
(1995
). “The feeling of another's knowing: Prosody and filled pauses as cues to listeners about the metacognitive states of speakers
,” J. Mem. Lang.
34
, 383
–398
.17.
Busso
, C.
, Lee
, S.
, and Narayanan
, S.
(2009
). “Analysis of emotionally salient aspects of fundamental frequency for emotion detection
,” IEEE Trans. Aud. Sp. Lang. Proc.
17
(4
), 582
–596
.18.
Caffi
, C.
, and Janney
, R. W.
(1994
). “Toward a pragmatics of emotive communication
,” J. Pragmat.
22
(3-4
), 325
–373
.19.
Cappella
, J.
, and Planalp
, S.
(1981
). “Talk and silence sequences in information conversations: Interspeaker influence
,” Hum. Commun. Res.
7
(2
), 117
–132
.20.
Carli
, L. L.
, LaFleur
, S. J.
, and Loeber
, C. C.
(1995
). “Nonverbal behavior, gender, and influence
,” J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.
68
(6
), 1030
–1041
.21.
Chaiken
, S.
(1980
). “Heuristic versus systematic information processing and the use of source versus message cues in persuasion
,” J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.
39
(5
), 752
–766
.22.
Chaiken
, S.
, Liberman
, A.
, and Eagly
, A. H.
(1989
). “Heuristic and systematic information processing within and beyond the persuasion context
,” in Unintended Thought
, edited by J.
Uleman
and J.
Bargh
(Guilford
, New York
), Vol. 16
, pp. 212
–252
.23.
Chaiken
, S.
, and Maheswaran
, D.
(1994
). “Heuristic processing can bias systematic processing: Effects of source credibility, argument ambiguity, and task importance on attitude judgment
,” J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.
66
(3
), 460
–473
.24.
Clark
, H. H.
, and Wilkes-Gibbs
, D.
(1986
). “Referring as a collaborative process
,” Cognition
22
(1
), 1
–39
.25.
Cooper
, J. R. M.
, Walker
, J.
, Aske
, R.
, Robinson
, J. C.
, and McNair
, M.
(2011
). “Students' perceptions of bullying behaviours by nursing faculty
,” Issues Educ. Res.
21
(1
), 1
–21
.26.
Corley
, M.
, and Stewart
, O. W.
(2008
). “Hesitation disfluencies in spontaneous speech: The meaning of um
,” Linguist Lang. Compass
2
(4
), 589
–602
.27.
Driskell
, J. E.
, Olmstead
, B.
, and Salas
, E.
(1993
). “Task cues, dominance cues, and influence in task groups
,” J. Appl. Psychol.
78
(1
), 51
–60
.28.
Ellsworth
, P. C.
, and Scherer
, K. R.
(2003
). “Appraisal processes in emotion
,” in Handbook of Affective Science
, edited by R.
Davidson
, K.
Scherer
, and H.
Goldsmith
(Oxford University Press
, Oxford
), pp. 572
–595
.29.
Fox Tree
, J. E.
(2002
). “Interpreting pauses and ums at turn exchanges
,” Disc Proc.
34
(1
), 37
–55
.30.
Giles
, H.
, Coupland
, J.
, and Coupland
, N.
(1991
). “Contexts of accommodation: Developments in applied sociolinguistics
,” in Contexts of Accommodation
, edited by H.
Giles
, J.
Coupland
, and N.
Coupland
(Cambridge University Press
, Cambridge, UK
), pp. 157
–186
.31.
Griffin
, D.
, and Tversky
, A.
(1992
). “The weighing of evidence and the determinants of confidence
,” Cogn. Psychol.
24
(3
), 411
–435
.32.
Guy
, G. R.
, and Vonwiller
, J.
(1984
). “The meaning of an intonation in Australian English
,” Austr. J. Ling.
4
(1
), 1
–17
.33.
Hagenaars
, M. A.
, and Van Minnen
, A.
(2005
). “The effect of fear on paralinguistic aspects of speech in patients with panic disorder with agoraphobia
,” J. Anxiety Disord.
19
(5
), 521
–537
.34.
Heesacker
, M.
, Petty
, R. E.
, and Cacioppo
, J. T.
(1983
). “Field dependence and attitude change: Source credibility can alter persuasion by affecting message-relevant thinking
,” J. Pers.
51
(4
), 653
–666
.35.
Jiang
, X.
, and Pell
, M. D.
(2015
). “On how the brain decodes vocal cues about speaker confidence
,” Cortex
66
, 9
–34
.36.
Jiang
, X.
, and Pell
, M. D.
(2016
). “Neural responses towards a speaker's feeling of (un)knowing
,” Neuropsychologia
81
, 79
–93
.37.
Juslin
, P. N.
, and Laukka
, P.
(2003
). “Communication of emotions in vocal expression and music performance: Different channels, same code?
,” Psyc. Bull.
129
(5
), 770
–814
.38.
39.
Kennedy
, J. A.
, Anderson
, C.
, and Moore
, D. A
(2013
). “When overconfidence is revealed to others: Testing the status-enhancement theory of overconfidence
,” Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process
122
(2
), 266
–279
.40.
Kotz
, S. A.
, and Schwartze
, M.
(2010
). “Cortical speech processing unplugged: A timely subcortico-cortical framework
,” Trends Cogn. Sci.
14
(9
), 392
–399
.41.
Ladd
, D. R.
, Silverman
, K. E. A.
, Tolkmitt
, F.
, Bergmann
, G.
, and Scherer
, K. R.
(1985
). “Evidence for the independent function of intonation contour type, voice quality, and F0 range in signaling speaker affect
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
78
(2
), 435
–555
.42.
Lempert
, K. M.
, Chen
, Y. L.
, and Fleming
, S. M.
(2015
). “Relating pupil dilation and metacognitive confidence during auditory decision-making
,” PloS One
10
(5
), e0126588
.43.
Levitan
, R.
, Gravano
, A.
, and Hirschberg
, J.
(2011
). “Entrainment in speech preceding backchannels
,” in Proceedings of the 49th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics on Human Language Technologies: Short Papers
.44.
Natale
, M.
(1975
). “Convergence of mean vocal intensity in dyadic communication as a function of social desirability
,” J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.
32
(5
), 790
–804
.45.
National Center for Educational Statistics
(2016
). “Fast facts: Degrees conferred by race and sex
,” available at https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d15/tables/dt15_318.30.asp?current=yes (Last viewed May 30, 2019).46.
National Science Foundation
(2017
). “Women, minorities, and persons with disabilities in science and engineering
,” available at https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/2017/nsf17310/data.cfm (Last viewed May 30, 2019).47.
Ozturk
, H.
, Sokmen
, S.
, Yilmaz
, F.
, and Cilingir
, D.
(2008
). “Measuring mobbing experiences of academic nurses: Development of a mobbing scale
,” J. Am. Acad. Nurse Pract.
20
(9
), 435
–442
.48.
Petty
, R. E.
, and Cacioppo
, J. T.
(1986
). “The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion
,” Adv. Exp. Soc. Psychol.
19
, 123
–205
49.
R Development Core Team
. (2012
). “R: A language and environment for statistical computing
,” R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria, available at http://www.R-project.org/ (Last viewed May 30, 2019).50.
Rhoton
, L. A.
(2011
). “Distancing as a gendered barrier: Understanding women scientists' gender practices
,” Gend. Soc.
25
(6
), 696
–716
.51.
Rudman
, L. A.
, and Glick
, P.
(1999
). “Feminized management and backlash toward agentic women: The hidden costs to women of a kinder, gentler image of middle managers
,” J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.
77
(5
), 1004
–1010
.52.
Scherer
, K. R.
, London
, H.
, and Wolf
, J. J.
(1973
). “The voice of confidence: Paralinguistic cues and audience evaluation
,” J. Res. Pers.
7
(1
), 31
–44
.53.
Schober
, M. F.
(1993
). “Spatial perspective-taking in conversation
,” Cognition
47
(1
), 1
–24
.54.
Schwartze
, M.
, and Kotz
, S. A.
(2013
). “A dual-pathway neural architecture for specific temporal prediction
,” Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev.
37
(10
), 2587
–2596
.55.
Shockley
, K.
, Santana
, M. V.
, and Fowler
, C. A.
(2003
). “Mutual interpersonal postural constraints are involved in cooperative conversation
,” J. Exp. Psychol.: Hum. Perc. Perf.
29
(2
), 326
–332
.56.
Simintiras
, A. C.
, Yeniaras
, V.
, Oney
, E.
, and Bahia
, T. K.
(2014
). “Redefining confidence for consumer behavior research
,” Psychol. Mark
31
(6
), 426
–439
.57.
Stephan
, W. G.
, and Stephan
, C. W.
(1985
). “Intergroup anxiety
,” J. Soc. Issues
41
(3
), 157
–175
.58.
Stephan
, W. G.
, Stephan
, C. W.
, and Gudykunst
, W. B.
(1999
). “Anxiety in intergroup relations: A comparison of anxiety/uncertainty management theory and integrated threat theory
,” Int. J. Intercult Relat.
23
(4
), 613
–628
.59.
Street
, R.
(1984
). “Speech convergence and speech evaluation in fact-finding interviews
,” Hum. Commun. Res.
11
(2
), 139
–169
.60.
Uldall
, E.
(1960
). “Attitudinal meanings conveyed by intonation contours
,” Lang. Speech
3
, 223
–234
.61.
United States Census
(2010
). “Age and sex composition
,” available at https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-03.pdf (Last viewed May 30, 2019).62.
Ward
, G.
, and Hirschberg
, J.
(1985
). “Implicating uncertainty: The pragmatics of fall-rise intonation
,” Language
61
(4
), 747
–776
, available at https://www.jstor.org/stable/414489 (Last viewed May 30, 2019).63.
Warren
, P.
(2016
). Uptalk: The Phenomenon of Rising Intonation
(Cambridge University Press
, Cambridge, UK
), pp. 1
–182
.64.
Warren
, P.
, and Britain
, D.
(2000
). “Intonation and prosody in New Zealand
,” in New Zealand English
(John Benjamins
, Amsterdam
), pp. 146
–172
.65.
Yngve
, V.
(1970
). “On getting a word in edgewise
,” in Papers from the 6th Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society
(Chicago Linguistic Society
, Chicago
), pp. 567
–578
.66.
Zipf
, G.
(1949
). Human Behaviour and the Principle of Least Effort
(Addison-Wesley
, Oxford, UK
).© 2019 Acoustical Society of America.
2019
Acoustical Society of America
You do not currently have access to this content.