Cavities branching off the main vocal tract are ubiquitous in nonhumans. Mammalian air sacs exist in human relatives, including all four great apes, but only a substantially reduced version exists in humans. The present paper focuses on acoustical functions of the air sacs. The hypotheses are investigated on whether the air sacs affect amplitude of utterances and/or position of formants. A multilayer synthetic model of the vocal folds coupled with a vocal tract model was utilized. As an air sac model, four configurations were considered: open and closed uniform tube-like side branches, a rigid cavity, and an inflatable cavity. Results suggest that some air sac configurations can enhance the sound level. Furthermore, an air sac model introduces one or more additional resonance frequencies, shifting formants of the main vocal tract to some extent but not as strongly as previously suggested. In addition, dynamic range of vocalization can be extended by the air sacs. A new finding is also an increased variability of the vocal tract impedance, leading to strong nonlinear source-filter interaction effects. The experiments demonstrated that air-sac-like structures can destabilize the sound source. The results were validated by a transmission line computational model.
REFERENCES
1.
Alipour
, F.
, and Scherer
, R. C.
(1997
). “Effects of oscillation of a mechanical hemilarynx model on mean transglottal pressures and flows
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
110
, 1562
–1569
.2.
Bartels
, P.
(1905
). “Über die Nebenräume der Kehlkopfhöhle
,” Z. Morphol. Anthropol.
8
, 11
–61
.3.
Causse
, R.
, Kergomard
, J.
, and Lurton
, X.
(1984
). “Input impedance of brass musical instruments
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
75
, 241
–254
.4.
Chan
, R. W.
, Titze
, I. R.
, and Titze
, M. R.
(1997
). “Further studies of phonation threshold pressure in a physical model of the vocal fold mucosa
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
101
, 3722
–3727
.5.
Chan
, R. W.
, and Titze
, I. R.
(2006
). “Dependence of phonation threshold pressure on vocal tract acoustics and vocal fold tissue mechanics
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
119
, 2351
–2362
.6.
Dang
, J.
, Honda
, K.
, and Suzuki
, H.
(1994
). “Morphological and acoustical analysis of the nasal and paranasal cavities
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
96
, 2088
–2100
.7.
Dang
, J.
, and Honda
, K.
(1996
). “Acoustic characteristic of the human paranasal sinuses derived from transmission characteristic measurement and morphological observation
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
100
, 3374
–3383
.8.
Dang
, J.
, and Honda
, K.
(1997
). “Acoustic characteristics of the piriform fossain models and humans
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
101
, 456
–465
.9.
Dang
, J.
, Shadle
, C. H.
, Kawanishi
, Y.
, Honda
, K.
, and Suzuki
, H.
(1998
). “An experimental study of the open end correction coefficient for side branches within an acoustic tube
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
104
, 1075
–1084
.9.
Fant
, G.
(1960
). “Acoustic Theory of Speech Production
,” 2nd ed. (Mouton
, The Hague, The Netherlands
).10.
Flanagan
, J. L.
(1972
). Speech Analysis, Synthesis and Perception
(Springer
, Berlin
).11.
Fletcher
, N. H.
, and Tarnopolsky
, A.
(1999
). “Acoustics of the avian vocal tract
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
105
, 35
–49
.11.
Fletcher
, N.
, Riede
, T.
, Beckers
, G. J. L.
, and Suthers
, R. A.
(2004
). “Vocal tract filtering and the ‘coo’ of doves
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
116
, 3750
–3756
.12.
Frey
, R.
, Gebler
, A.
, and Fritsch
, G.
(2006
). “Arctic roars—laryngeal anatomy and vocalization of the muskox (Ovibus moschatus Zimmermann, 1780, Bovidae)
,” J. Zool.
268
, 433
–448
.13.
Frey
, R.
, Gebler
, A.
, Fritsch
, G.
, Nygren
, K.
, and Weissengruber
, G. E.
(2007
). “Nordic rattle—the hoarse phonation and the inflatable laryngeal air sac of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus)
,” J. Anat.
210
, 131
–159
.14.
Gautier
, J. P.
(1971
). “Etude morphologique et fonctionnelle des annexes extra-laryngées des cercopithecinae; liason avec les cris d’espacement
,” Biol. Gabon.
7
, 229
–267
.15.
Haimoff
, E. H.
(1981
). “Video analysis of Siamang (Hylobates syndactylus) songs
,” Behaviour
76
, 128
–151
.16.
Hayama
, S.
(1970
). “The Saccus larynges in Primates
,” Journal of the Anthropological Society of Nippon.
78
, 274
–298
.17.
Hill
, W. C. O.
and Booth
, A. H.
(1957
). “Voice and Larynx in African and Asian Colobidae
,” J. Bombay Natural His. Soc.
54
, 309
–321
.18.
Hillowala
, R. A.
, and Lass
, N. J.
(1978
). “Spectrographic analysis of air sac resonance in rhesus monkeys
,” Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.
49
, 129
–132
.19.
Hirano
, M.
, and Kakita
, Y.
(1985
). “Cover-body theory of vocal fold vibration
,” in Speech Science: Physiological Aspects
, edited by R.
Daniloff
(College-Hill
, San Diego, CA
), pp 1
–46
.20.
Hsiao
, T.
, Solomon
, N. P.
, Luschei
, E. S.
, Titze
, I. R.
, Kang
, L.
, Fu
, T.
, and Hsu
, M.
(1994
). “Effect of subglottic pressure on fundamental frequency of the canine larynx with active muscle tensions
,” Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol.
103
, 817
–821
.21.
Kurita
, S.
, Nagata
, K.
, and Hirano
, M.
(1983
). “A. comparative study of the layer structure of the vocal fold
,” in Vocal Fold Physiology: Contemporary Research and Clinical Issues
, edited by D. M.
Bless
and J. H.
Abbs
(College-Hill
, San Diego
), pp. 3
–21
.22.
Ishizaka
, K.
, Matsudaira
, M.
, and Kaneko
, T.
(1976
). “Input acoustic-impedance measurement of the subglottal system
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
60
, 190
–197
.23.
Lieberman
, P.
(2006
). “Limits on tongue deformation—Diana monkey formants and the impossible vocal tract shapes proposed by Riede et al. (2005)
,” J. Hum. Evol.
50
, 219
–221
.24.
Neubauer
, J.
, Zhang
, Z.
, Miraghaie
, R.
, and Berry
, D. A.
(2007
). “Coherent structures of the near field flow in a self-oscillating physical model of the vocal folds
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
121
, 1102
–1118
.25.
Nishimura
, T.
, Mikami
, A.
, Suzuki
, J.
, and Matsuzawa
, T.
(2007
). “Development of the laryngeal air sac in chimpanzees
,” International Journal of Primatology
28
, 483
–492
.26.
Ogura
, Y.
(1915
). “Beitraege zur Kenntnis des Kehlsackes des Rentieres
,” J. Coll. Agr. Tohoku Imp. University, Sapporo
6
, 151
–155
.27.
Rendall
, D.
, Owren
, M. J.
, and Rodman
, P. S.
(1998
). “The role of vocal tract filtering in identity cueing in rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) vocalizations
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
103
, 602
–614
.26.
Riede
, T.
, Herzel
, H.
, Mehwald
, D.
, Seidner
, W.
, Trumler
, E.
, Böhme
, G.
, and Tembrock
, G.
(2000
). “Nonlinear phenomena and their anatomical basis in the natural howling of a female dog-wolf breed
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
108
, 1435
–1442
.26.
Riede
, T.
, Arcadi
, A. C.
, and Owren
, M.
(2004b
). “Nonlinear acoustics in pant hoots of common chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): Frequency jumps, subharmonics, biphonation, and deterministic chaos
,” Am. J. Primatol
64
, 277
–291
.26.
Riede
, T.
and Titze
, I. R.
(2008
). “Vocal fold elasticity of the Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni) — producing high fundamental frequency vocalization with a very long vocal fold
,” J. Exp. Biol.
(in press).28.
Riede
, T.
, Arcadi
, A. C.
, and Owren
, M. J.
(2007
). “Nonlinear acoustics in pant hoots and screams of common chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Vocalizing at the edge
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
121
, 1758
–1767
.29.
Riede
, T.
, Beckers
, G. J. L.
, Blevins
, W.
, and Suthers
, R. A.
(2004
). “Inflation of the esophagus and vocal tract filtering in ring doves
,” J. Exp. Biol.
207
, 4025
–4036
.30.
Riede
, T.
, Bronson
, E.
, Hatzikirou
, H.
, and Zuberbühler
, K.
(2005
). “Vocal production mechanisms in a non-human primate: Morphological data and a model
,” J. Hum. Evol.
48
, 85
–96
.31.
Riede
, T.
, Bronson
, E.
, Hatzikirou
, H.
, and Zuberbühler
, K.
(2006
). “Multiple discontinuities in nonhuman vocal tracts—A response to Lieberman (2006)
,” J. Hum. Evol.
50
, 222
–225
.32.
Riede
, T.
, Suthers
, R. A.
, Fletcher
, N.
, and Blevins
, W.
(2006
). “Songbirds tune their vocal tract to the fundamental frequency of their song
,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.
103
, 5543
–5548
.33.
Riede
, T.
, Wilden
, I.
, and Tembrock
, G.
(1997
). “Subharmonics, biphonations, and frequency jumps-common components of mammalian vocalization or indicators for disorders
?” Z. Säugetierkunde (Suppl. II)
62
, 198
–203
.33.
Scherer
, R. C.
, Shinwari
, D.
, DeWitt
, K. J.
, Zhang
, C.
, Kucinschi
, B. R.
, and Afjeh
, A. A.
(2001
). “Intraglottal pressure profiles for a symmetric and oblique glottis with a divergence angle
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
109
, 1616
–1630
.34.
Schneider
, R.
(1964
). “Der Larynx der Säugetiere (The larynx of mammals)
,” Handbuch der Zoologie
5
, 1
–128
.35.
Schön-Ybarra
, M.
(1995
). “A comparative approach to the non-human primate vocal tract: Implications for sound production
,” in Current Topics in Primate Vocal Communication
, edited by E.
Zimmermann
, J. D.
Newman
, and U.
Juergens
(Plenum
, New York
), pp. 185
–198
.36.
Sohndi
, M. M.
, and Schroeter
, J.
(1987
). “A hybrid time-frequency domain articulatory speech synthesizer
,” IEEE Trans. Acoust., Speech, Signal Process.
35
, 955
–967
.37.
Starck
, D.
, and Schneider
, R.
(1960
). “Respirationsorgane, Larynx
,” Primatologia
3
, 423
–587
.40.
Tembrock
, G.
(1974
). “Sound production in Hylobathes and Symphalangus
,” in Gibbon and Siamang
, edited by D.
Rumbaugh
(Karger
, Basel
), Vol. 3
, pp. 176
–205
.41.
Thomson
, S. L.
, Mongeau
, L.
, and Frankel
, S. H.
(2005
). “Aerodynamic transfer of energy to the vocal folds
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
118
, 1689
–1700
.42.
Titze
, I. R.
(1988
). “The physics of small-amplitude oscillation of the vocal folds
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
83
, 1536
–1552
.43.
Titze
, I. R.
, and Story
, B. H.
(1997
). “Acoustic interaction of the voice source with the lower vocal tract
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
101
, 2234
–2243
.44.
Titze
, I. R.
, Schmidt
, S. S.
, and Titze
, M. R.
(1995
). “Phonation threshold pressure in a physical model of the vocal fold mucosa
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
97
, 3080
–3084
.45.
Titze
, I. R.
(2004a
). “A theoretical study of F0-F1 interaction with application to resonant speaking and singing voice
,” J. Voice
18
, 292
–298
.46.
Titze
, I. R.
(2004b
). “Theory of glottal airflow and source-filter interaction in speaking and singing
,” Acta Acust.
90
, 641
–648
.47.
Titze
, I. R.
(2008
). “Nonlinear source-filter coupling in phonation: Theory
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
123
, 2733
–2749
.48.
Titze
, I. R.
, Riede
, T.
, and Popollo
, P.
(2008
). “Nonlinear source-filter coupling in phonation: Vocal exercises
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
123
, 1902
–1915
.49.
Whitehead
, J. M.
(1995
). “Vox Alouattinae: A preliminary survey of the acoustic characteristics of long-distance calls of howling monkeys
,” Int J. Primatol.
16
, 121
–144
.50.
Zhang
, Z.
, Neubauer
, J.
, and Berry
, D. A.
(2006a
). “The influence of subglottal acoustics on laboratory models of phonation
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
120
, 1558
–1569
.51.
Zhang
, Z.
, Neubauer
, J.
, and Berry
, D. A.
(2006b
). “Aerodynamically and acoustically driven modes of vibration in a physical model of the vocal folds
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
120
, 2841
–2849
.© 2008 Acoustical Society of America.
2008
Acoustical Society of America
You do not currently have access to this content.
