Perception and production of English vowels by Mandarin speakers: Age-related differences vary with amount of L2 exposure^a)

In this study we assessed age-related differences in the perception and production of American English (AE) vowels by native Mandarin speakers as a function of the amount of exposure to the target language. Participants included three groups of native Mandarin speakers: 87 children, adolescents and young adults living in China, 77 recent arrivals who had lived in the U.S. for two years or less, and 54 past arrivals who had lived in the U.S. between three and five years. The latter two groups arrived in the U.S. between the ages of 7 and 44 years. Discrimination of six AE vowel pairs $∕i-ɪ∕$⁠, $∕i-eɪ∕$⁠, $∕ϵ-æ∕$⁠, $∕æ-α∕$⁠, $∕α-Λ∕$⁠, and $∕u-α∕$ was assessed with a categorial AXB task. Production of the eight vowels $∕i$⁠, $ɪ$⁠, $eɪ$⁠, $ϵ$⁠, $æ$⁠, $Λ$⁠, $α$⁠, $u∕$ was assessed with an immediate imitation task. Age-related differences in performance accuracy changed from an older-learner advantage among participants in China, to no age differences among recent arrivals, and to a younger-learner advantage among past arrivals. Performance on individual vowels and vowel contrasts indicated the influence of the Mandarin phonetic/phonological system. These findings support a combined environmental and L1 interference/transfer theory as an explanation of the long-term younger-learner advantage in mastering L2 phonology.