Texture is linked to food structure at micro- and macro-levels. The most effective way to manipulate gel texture is to change the number of crosslinks per unit volume. Polymer concentration and type can be changed or the amount of evaporated water can be adjusted to achieve this. Gummy candy is a good food model to investigate texture due to the presence of versatile polymer gelling agents. The estimation of average cross-link distance is a good approach to monitor candy texture. Physicochemical properties are useful indicators showing storage stability. In this study, gummy candies were prepared with different glucose sirup:sucrose ratios (1.1 and 1.5), starch (0% and 1.5%), and gelatin (3% and 6%) concentrations. Texture (hardness), moisture content, water activity (aw), total soluble solids (TSS), and pH were measured. Candies were stored at 10, 20, and 30 °C for 12 weeks and at ambient temperatures of 15–22 °C for 52 weeks. Gelatin concentration, moisture content, storage time, and temperature affected hardness. At 1.5 glucose sirup:sucrose ratio, average cross-link distance decreased after 10 °C storage for 3% gelatin level and it increased after 20 and 30 °C storage for 6% gelatin and 0% starch level; however, it did not change for 15–22 °C storage. Moisture content, aw, TSS, and pH were affected by glucose sirup:sucrose ratio. A Weibullian model was used to express quality changes, and physicochemical indicators did not have an integer kinetic order. Tracking of physicochemical properties and texture with average cross-link distance calculation and modeling is useful for storage stability studies showing the quality of food gel products.

1.
W. P.
Edwards
,
The Science of Sugar Confectionery
(
The Royal Society of Chemistry
,
2000
).
2.
F. A.
Mohos
,
Confectionery and Chocolate Engineering Principles and Applications
(
Wiley-Blackwell
,
2010
).
3.
R.
Gunes
,
I.
Palabiyik
,
N.
Konar
, and
O. S.
Toker
, “
Soft confectionery products: Quality parameters, interactions with processing and ingredients
,”
Food Chem.
385
,
132735
(
2022
).
4.
L. B.
da Silva
,
M. B.
Queiroz
,
A. L.
Fadini
,
R. C. C.
da Fonseca
,
S. P. M.
Germer
, and
P.
Efraim
, “
Chewy candy as a model system to study the influence of polyols and fruit pulp (açai) on texture and sensorial properties
,”
LWT-Food Sci. Technol.
65
,
268
274
(
2016
).
5.
P.
Hull
,
Glucose Syrups: Technology and Applications
(
Wiley Blackwell
,
2010
).
6.
P.
Burey
,
B. R.
Bhandari
,
R. P.
Rutgers
,
P. J.
Halley
, and
P. J.
Torley
, “
Confectionery gels: A Review on formulation, rheological and structural aspects
,”
Int. J. Food Prop.
12
,
176
210
(
2009
).
7.
J. J.
Alikonis
,
Candy Technology
(
Avi Publishing
,
1979
).
8.
S.
Kasapis
,
I. M.
Al-Marhoobi
,
J. R.
Mitchell
,
M.
Deszczynki
, and
R.
Abeysekera
, “
Gelatin vs polysaccharide in mixture with sugar
,”
Biomacromolecules
4
,
1142
1149
(
2003
).
9.
K.
Holm
,
K.
Wendin
, and
A.
Hermansson
, “
Sweetness and texture perceptions in structured gelatin gels with embedded sugar rich domains
,”
Food Hydrocolloids
23
,
2388
2393
(
2009
).
10.
H. D.
Belitz
,
W.
Grosch
, and
P.
Schieberle
,
Food Chemistry
(
Springer-Verlag
,
2009
).
11.
M.
Porayanee
,
P.
Katemate
, and
K.
Duangmal
, “
Effect of gelatine concentrations and glucose syrup to sucrose ratios on textural and optical properties of gelatin gel
,”
JFAT
1
,
26
30
(
2015
).
12.
M.
Lu
,
Y. P.
Han
, and
X. H.
Zhao
, “
Properties of bovine gelatin as affected by a cross-linking induced by horseradish peroxidase, glucose oxidase and glucose
,”
Food Meas.
12
,
728
735
(
2018
).
13.
H.
Ge
,
Y.
Wu
,
L. L.
Woshnak
, and
S. H.
Mitmesser
, “
Effects of hydrocolloids, acids and nutrients on gelatin network in gummies
,”
Food Hydrocolloids
113
,
106549
(
2021
).
14.
S.
Benjakul
and
P.
Kittiphattanabawon
,
Encyclopedia of Food Chemistry
(
Elsevier
,
2019
), Vol.
1
, pp.
121
127
.
15.
F.
Altay
and
S.
Gunasekaran
, “
Gelling properties of gelatin-xhanthan gum systems with high levels of co-solutes
,”
J. Food Eng.
118
,
289
295
(
2013
).
16.
P. H. M.
Marfil
,
A. C. B. M.
Anhê
, and
V. R. N.
Telis
, “
Texture and microstructure of gelatin/corn starch-based gummy confections
,”
Food Biophys.
7
,
236
243
(
2012
).
17.
P.
Delgado
and
S.
Banon
, “
Determining the minimum drying time of gummy confections based on their mechanical properties
,”
CyTA-J. Food
13
,
329
335
(
2015
).
18.
L. L.
DeMars
and
G. R.
Ziegler
, “
Texture and structure of gelatin/pectin-based gummy confections
,”
Food Hydrocolloids
15
,
643
653
(
2001
).
19.
Y.
Pomeranz
,
Functional Properties of Food Components
(
Academic Press Inc
.,
1991
).
20.
K.
Kohyama
and
K.
Nishinari
, “
Effect of soluble sugars on gelatinization and retrogradation of sweet potato starch
,”
J. Agric. Food Chem.
39
,
1406
1410
(
1991
).
21.
IUPAC
. “
Definitions of terms relating to the structure and processing of sols, gels, networks, and inorganic-organic hybrid materials
,”
Pure Appl. Chem.
79
,
1801
1806
(
2007
).
22.
H. T.
vo Kientza
,
Handbook of Molecular Gastronomy Scientific Foundations, Educational Practices, and Culinary Applications
(
CRC Press
,
2021
), pp.
375
379
.
23.
G. M.
Kavanagh
and
S. B.
Ross-Murphy
, “
Rheological characterization of polymer gels
,”
Prog. Polym. Sci.
23
,
533
562
(
1998
).
24.
O. G.
Mouritsen
,
Handbook of Molecular Gastronomy Scientific Foundations, Educational Practices, and Culinary Applications
(
CRC Press
,
2021
), pp.
585
591
.
25.
M.
Brenner
,
P.
Sörensen
, and
D.
Weitz
,
Science and Cooking
(
W. W. Norton & Company
,
2020
).
26.
M. G.
Volpe
,
M.
Di Stasio
,
M.
Paolucci
, and
S.
Moccia
,
Functional Polymers in Food Science: From Technology to Biology
(
Scrivener Publishing LLC
.,
2015
), pp.
9
66
.
27.
M. L.
Amodio
,
A.
Derossi
, and
G.
Colelli
,
Fruit and Vegetable Phytochemicals: Chemistry and Human Health
(
John Wiley & Sons
,
2017
), pp.
833
856
.
28.
F. A. A.
Barraza
,
R. A. Q.
Leon
, and
P. X. L.
Alvarez
, “
Kinetics of protein and textural changes in Atlantic salmon under frozen storage
,”
Food Chem.
182
,
120
127
(
2015
).
29.
M. L.
Amodio
,
A.
Derrosi
,
L.
Mastrandrea
, and
G.
Colelli
, “
A study of the estimated shelf life of fresh rocket using non-linear model
,”
J. Food Eng.
150
,
19
28
(
2015
).
30.
H.
Zheng
and
H.
Lu
, “
Use of kinetic, Weibull and PLSR models to predict the retention of ascorbic acid, total phenols and antioxidant activity during storage of pasteurized pineapple juice
,”
LWT-Food Sci. Technol.
44
,
1273
1281
(
2011
).
31.
J.
Nie
,
D.
Chen
,
Y.
Lu
, and
Z.
Dai
, “
Effects of various blanching methods on fucoxanthin degradation kinetics, antioxidant activity, pigment composition, and sensory quality of Sargassum fusiforme
,”
LWT
143
,
111179
(
2021
).
32.
M. G.
Corradini
and
M.
Peleg
, “
Prediction of vitamins loss during non-isothermal heat processes and storage with non-linear kinetic models
,”
Trends Food Sci. Technol.
17
,
24
34
(
2006
).
33.
F.
Oliveira
,
M. J.
Sousa-Gallagher
,
P. V.
Mahajan
, and
J. A.
Teixeira
, “
Development of shelf-life kinetic model for modified atmosphere of fresh sliced mushrooms
,”
J. Food Eng.
111
,
466
473
(
2012
).
34.
G.
Mishra
,
P.
Sahni
,
R.
Pandiselvam
,
B. K.
Panda
,
D.
Bhati
,
N. K.
Mahanti
,
A.
Kothakota
,
M.
Kumar
, and
D.
Cozzolino
, “
Emerging nondestructive techniques to quantify the textural properties of food: A state-of-art review
,”
J. Texture Stud.
2023
,
1
33
.
35.
AOAC
,
Standard Testing Methods for Edible Gelatin
(
Official Procedure of the Gelatin Manufacturers Institute of America, Inc
,
1986
).
36.
M. C.
Bourne
, “
Texture profile of ripening pears
,”
J. Food Sci.
33
,
223
226
(
1968
).
37.
R. E.
Wrolstad
,
Current Protocols in Food Analytical Chemistry
(
John Wiley and Sons Inc
,
2001
).
38.
A.
Boldini
and
M.
Porfiri
, “
Ideal-dilute-incompressible solutions
,”
Electrochim. Acta
426
,
140781
(
2022
).
39.
R.
Yang
,
T.
Zhang
,
P.
Jiang
, and
Y.
Bai
, “
Experimental verification and theoretical analysis of the relationships between hardness, elastic modulus, and the work of indentation
,”
Appl. Phys. Lett.
92
,
231906
(
2008
).
40.
Encyclopaedia Britannica, Britannica Concise Encyclopedia, Boltzmann Constant (
Britannica Digital Learning
,
2017
).
41.
M. A. J. S. V.
Boekel
, “
Kinetic modeling of food quality: A critical review
,”
Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf.
7
,
144
158
(
2008
).
42.
J.
Calvarro
,
T.
Perez-Palacios
, and
J.
Ruiz
, “
Modification of gelatin functionality for culinary applications by using transglutaminase
,”
Int. J. Gastronmy Food Sci.
5–6
,
27
32
(
2016
).
43.
Z.
Jianlong
,
Q.
Congde
,
L.
Weiliang
, and
L.
Qinze
, “
Gelation, network structure and properties of physically crosslinked gelatin gels: Effect of salt cation valence
,”
J. Macromol. Sci., Part B
56
,
739
748
(
2017
).
44.
S.
Chatterjee
and
H. B.
Bohidar
, “
Effect of cationic size on gelation temperature and properties of gelatin hydrogels
,”
Int. J. Biol. Macromol.
35
,
81
88
(
2005
).
45.
H. E.
Park
,
N.
Gasek
,
J.
Hwang
,
D. J.
Weiss
, and
P. C.
Lee
, “
Effect of temperature on gelatin and cross-linking of gelatin methacryloyl for biomedical applications
,”
Phys. Fluids
32
,
033102
(
2020
).
46.
L.
Rebers
,
R.
Reichsöllner
,
S.
Regett
,
G. E. M.
Tovar
,
K.
Borchers
,
S.
Baudis
, and
A.
Southan
, “
Differentiation of physical and chemical cross-linking in gelatin methacryloyl hydrogels
,”
Sci. Rep.
11
,
3256
(
2021
).
47.
L.
Rebers
,
T.
Granse
,
G. E. M.
Tovar
,
A.
Southan
, and
K.
Borchers
, “
Physical ınteractions strengthen chemical gelatin methacryloyl gels
,”
Gels
5
,
4
(
2019
).
48.
C. E.
Owens
,
M. R.
Fan
,
A. J.
Hart
, and
G. H.
McKinkley
, “
On oreology, the fracture and flow of ‘milk’s favorite cookie®
,'”
Phys. Fluids
34
,
043107
(
2022
).
49.
M.
Nicholas
, “
The conditioning of confectionery products
,” MRes thesis (
University of Birmingham
,
UK
,
2009
).
50.
E. B.
Jackson
,
Sugar Confectionery Manufacture
(
Blackie Academic
,
1995
).
51.
X.
Li
,
X.
Liu
,
K.
Lai
,
Y.
Fan
,
Y.
Liu
, and
Y.
Huang
, “
Effects of sucrose, glucose and fructose on the large deformation behaviors of fish skin gelatin gels
,”
Food Hydrocolloids
101
,
105537
(
2020
).
52.
J. M.
Tan
and
M. H.
Lim
, “
Effects of gelatine type and concentration on the shelf-life stability and quality of marshmallows
,”
Int. J. Food Sci. Technol.
43
,
1699
1704
(
2008
).
53.
C. O.
Moore
and
J. R.
Dial
, “
Method for making liquid centered jelly candies
,” US Patent 5626896A (
1997
).
54.
I.
Tiainen
,
J.
Oravainen
, and
T.
Piilola
, “
Jellying product
,” US Patent 6403140B1 (
2002
).
55.
R. P.
Ellis
,
M. P.
Cochrane
,
M. F. B.
Dale
,
C. M.
Duffus
,
A.
Lynn
,
I. M.
Morrison
,
R. D. M.
Prentice
,
J. S.
Swanston
, and
S. A.
Tiller
, “
Starch production and industrial use
,”
J. Sci. Food Agric.
77
,
289
311
(
1998
).
56.
J.
Singh
,
L.
Kaur
, and
O. J.
McCarthy
, “
Factors influencing the physico-chemical, morphological, thermal and rheological properties of some chemically modified starches for food applications—A review
,”
Food Hydrocolloids
21
,
1
22
(
2007
).
57.
R.
Ergun
,
R.
Lietha
, and
R. W.
Hartel
, “
Moisture and shelf life in sugar confections
,”
Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr.
50
,
162
192
(
2010
).
58.
J.
Enrione
, “
Mechanical stability of intermediate moisture starch glycerol systems
,” Ph.D. thesis (
University of Nottingham
,
UK
,
2005
).
59.
L. E.
Chuy
and
T. P.
Labuza
, “
Caking and stickiness of dairy-based food powders as related to glass transition
,”
J. Food Sci.
59
,
43
46
(
1994
).
60.
G. N.
Ling
, “
A new theoretical foundation for the polarized-oriented multilayer theory of cell water and for inanimate systems demonstrating long-range dynamic structuring of water molecules
,”
Physiol. Chem. Phys. Med. NMR
35
,
91
130
(
2003
).
61.
G. E.
Beard
, “
Moisture measurement: An overview
,”
Manuf. Confect.
81
,
73
80
(
2001
).
62.
C.
Mutlu
,
S. A.
Tontul
, and
M.
Erbas
, “
Production of a minimally processed jelly candy for children using honey instead of sugar
,”
LWT
93
,
499
505
(
2018
).
63.
H. A.
Khouryieh
,
F. M.
Aramouni
, and
T. J.
Herald
, “
Physical, chemical and sensory properties of sugar-free jelly
,”
J. Food Qual.
28
,
179
190
(
2005
).
64.
Y. H.
Chang
,
S. T.
Lim
, and
B.
Yoo
, “
Dynamic rheology of corn starch-sugar composites
,”
J. Food Eng.
64
,
521
527
(
2004
).
65.
P.
Delgado
and
S.
Bañón
, “
Effects of replacing starch by inulin on the physicochemical, texture and sensory characteristics of gummy jellies
,”
CyTA-J. Food
16
,
1
10
(
2018
).
66.
S. V.
Vlierberghe
,
G. J.
Graulus
,
S. K.
Samal
,
I. V.
Nieuwenhove
, and
P.
Dubruel
,
Biomedical Foams for Tissue Engineering Applications
(
Woodhead Publishing
,
2014
), pp.
335
390
.
67.
P.
Subramaniam
,
Food and Beverage Stability and Shelf Life
(
Woodhead Publishing
,
2011
), pp.
716
742
.
68.
R. Z.
Kamil
,
F. H.
Fadhila
,
A. D.
Rachmasari
,
A.
Murdiati
,
M.
Juffrie
, and
E. S.
Rahayu
, “
Development of probiotic gummy candy using the indigenous Lactobacillus plantarum Dad-13 strain; Evaluation of its gastrointestinal resistance and shelf-life prediction
,”
Food Res.
5
,
265
273
(
2021
).
69.
T.
Motwani
,
W.
Hanselmann
, and
R. C.
Anantheswaran
, “
Diffusion, counter-diffusion and lipid phase changes occurring during oil migration in model confectionery systems
,”
J. Food Eng.
104
,
186
195
(
2011
).
70.
A. A.
Mohamed
,
H.
Alqah
,
M. S.
Alamri
,
S.
Hussain
,
A. A.
Qasem
,
M. I.
Ibraheem
,
H. M.
Yehia
, and
G.
Shamlan
, “
Physicochemical properties of enzymatically modified starches
,”
Processes
9
,
2251
(
2021
).
71.
I.
Dranca
and
S.
Vyazovkin
, “
Thermal stability of gelatin gels: Effect of preparation conditions on the activation energy barrier to melting
,”
Polymer
50
,
4859
4867
(
2009
).
72.
T. D.
Karapantsios
,
E. P.
Sakonidou
, and
S. N.
Raphaelides
, “
Water dispersion kinetics during starch gelatinization
,”
Carbohydr. Polym.
49
,
479
490
(
2002
).
73.
V. R. N.
Telis
,
J.
Telis-Romero
,
H. B.
Mazzotti
, and
A. L.
Gabas
, “
Viscosity of aqueous carbohydrate solutions at different temperatures and concentrations
,”
Int. J. Food Prop.
10
,
185
195
(
2007
).
74.
G. G.
Fuller
,
M.
Lisicki
,
A. J. T. M.
Mathijssen
,
E. J. L.
Mossige
,
R.
Pasquino
,
V. N.
Prakash
, and
L.
Ramos
, “
Kitchen flows: Making science more accessible, affordable, and curiosity driven
,”
Phys. Fluids
34
,
110401
(
2022
).
75.
M.
Ghebremedhin
,
M.
Baechie
, and
T. A.
Vilgis
, “
Meat-, vegetarian-, and vegan sausages: Comparison of mechanics, friction, and structure
,”
Phys. Fluids
34
,
047112
(
2022
).
You do not currently have access to this content.