Global installations of household rooftop solar photovoltaics (PVs) are rapidly increasing, driven in many cases by government incentives. We show a direct correlation between economic resources and both the PV penetration and the average PV system size. Using datasets with a high areal resolution for socioeconomic indicators and household PV installations, we create an Index of Economic Resources for Owner-Occupiers for the Australian Capital Territory, Australia. Our analysis confirms the inaccuracy of using highly aggregated datasets in exploring the socioeconomic outcomes of the renewable energy policy, an inaccuracy long known in other disciplines. Analyses using such datasets are likely to overlook vulnerable areas, which could increase perverse policy outcomes.
References
1.
Anselin
, L.
, Sridharan
, S.
, and Gholston
, S.
, “Using exploratory spatial data analysis to leverage social indicator databases: the discovery of interesting patterns
,” Soc. Indic. Res.
82
, 287
–309
(2007
). 2.
Australian Bureau of Statistics
, see http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/Lookup/bySubject/1270.0.55.001∼July2016∼MainFeatures∼MeshBlocks(MB)∼10012 for “Main Features - Mesh Blocks (MB), 2016
” (last accessed Janauary 30, 2019).3.
Australian Bureau of Statistics
, Socio-Economic Indexes for Areas (SEIFA) - 2016
(Australian Bureau of Statistics
, 2018
).4.
Australian Energy Council
, Renewable Energy in Australia-How Do We Really Compare?
(Australian Energy Council
, 2016
).5.
Balcombe
, P.
, Rigby
, D.
, and Azapagic
, A.
, “Motivations and barriers associated with adopting microgeneration energy technologies in the UK
,” Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev.
22
, 655
–666
(2013
).6.
Bird
S.
and Hernández
, D.
, “Policy options for the split incentive: Increasing energy efficiency for low-income renters
,” Energy Policy
48
, 506
–514
(2012
).7.
Bouzarovski
S.
and Simcock
, N.
, “Spatializing energy justice
,” Energy Policy
107
, 640
–648
(2017
).8.
Carley
, S.
, Evans
, T. P.
, Graff
, M.
, and Konisky
, D. M.
, “A framework for evaluating geographic disparities in energy transition vulnerability
,” Nat. Energy
3
, 621
–627
(2018
).9.
Chapman
, A. J.
, Mclellan
, B.
, and Tezuka
, T.
, “Residential solar PV policy: An analysis of impacts, successes and failures in the Australian case
,” Renewable Energy
86
, 1265
–1279
(2016
).10.
Chesser
, M.
, Hanly
, J.
, Cassells
, D.
, and Apergis
, N.
, “The positive feedback cycle in the electricity market: Residential solar PV adoption, electricity demand and prices
,” Energy Policy
122
, 36
–44
(2018
).11.
Clarke
, D.
, Seaman
, V.
, Chamberlain
, H. R.
, Kerr
, D.
, Bengtsson
, L.
, Jochem
, W. C.
, Bird
, T. J.
, Tatem
, A. J.
, Wardrop
, N. A.
, and Juran
, S.
, “Spatially disaggregated population estimates in the absence of national population and housing census data
,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
115
, 3529
–3537
(2018
).12.
Clean Energy Regulator
, see http://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/RET/About-the-Renewable-Energy-Target/How-the-scheme-works for “How the Scheme Works, 2018
” (last accessed February 13, 2019).13.
Clean Energy Regulator
, see http://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/RET/Forms-and-resources/Postcode-data-for-small-scale-installations for “Postcode Data for Small-Scale Installations, 2019
” (last accessed February 12, 2019).14.
Coffman
, M.
, Wee
, S.
, Bonham
, C.
, and Salim
, G.
, “A policy analysis of Hawaii's solar tax credit
,” Renewable Energy
85
, 1036
–1043
(2016
).15.
Costello
, K. W.
and Hemphill
, R. C.
, “Electric utilities' “death spiral”: Hyperbole or reality?
,” Electr. J.
27
, 7
–26
(2014
).16.
Dharshing
, S.
, “Household dynamics of technology adoption: A spatial econometric analysis of residential solar photovoltaic (PV) systems in Germany
,” Energy Res. Soc. Sci.
23
, 113
–124
(2017
).17.
Doxsey-Whitfield
, E.
, MacManus
, K.
, Squires
, J.
, Pistolesi
, L.
, Adamo
, S. B.
, Baptista
, S. R.
, and Borkovska
, O.
, “Taking advantage of the improved availability of census data: A first look at the gridded population of the world, version 4
,” Pap. Appl. Geogr.
1
, 226
–234
(2015
).18.
Drechsler
, M.
, Egerer
, J.
, Lange
, M.
, Masurowski
, F.
, Meyerhoff
, J.
, and Oehlmann
, M.
, “Efficient and equitable spatial allocation of renewable power plants at the country scale
,” Nat. Energy
2
, 17124
(2017
).19.
Farrell
, N.
and Lyons
, S.
, “Equity impacts of energy and climate policy: Who is shouldering the burden?
,” Wiley Interdiscip. Rev.: Energy Environ.
5
, 492
–509
(2016
).20.
Federal Register
, see https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2018/11/13/2018-24570/block-groups-for-the-2020-census-final-criteria for “Federal Register: Block Groups for the 2020 Census-Final Criteria, 2018
” (last accessed February13, 2019).21.
Frederiks
E. R.
, Stenner
, K.
, and Hobman
, E. V.
, “The socio-demographic and psychological predictors of residential energy consumption: A comprehensive review
,” Energies
8
, 573
–609
(2015
).22.
Geronimus
, A. T.
and Bound
, J.
, “Use of census-based aggregate variable to proxy for socioeconomic group: Evidence from national samples
,” Am. J. Epidemiol.
148
, 475
–486
(1998
).23.
Graziano
, M.
and Gillingham
, K.
, “Spatial patterns of solar photovoltaic system adoption: The influence of neighbors and the built environment
,” J. Econ. Geogr.
15
, 815
–839
(2015
).24.
Graziano
, M.
, Fiaschetti
, M.
, and Atkinson-Palombo
, C.
, “Peer effects in the adoption of solar energy technologies in the United States: An urban case study
,” Energy Res. Soc. Sci.
48
, 75
–84
(2019
).25.
Grover
, D.
and Daniels
, B.
, “Social equity issues in the distribution of feed-in tariff policy benefits: A cross sectional analysis from England and Wales using spatial census and policy data
,” Energy Policy
106
, 255
–265
(2017
).26.
IEA-PVPS
, Trends 2018 in Photovoltaics Applications
(International Energy Agency-Photovoltaic Power System Program
, 2018
).27.
Inderberg
, T. H. J.
, Tews
, K.
, and Turner
, B.
, “Is there a prosumer pathway? Exploring household solar energy development in Germany, Norway, and the United Kingdom
,” Energy Res. Soc. Sci.
42
, 258
–269
(2018
).28.
Jablensky
, A.
, McGrath
, J.
, Herrman
, H.
, Castle
, D.
, Gureje
, O.
, Evans
, M.
, Carr
, V.
, Morgan
, V.
, Korten
, A.
, and Harvey
, C.
, “Psychotic disorders in urban areas: An overview of the Study on Low Prevalence Disorders
,” Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry
34
, 221
–236
(2000
).29.
Karakaya
, E.
and Sriwannawit
, P.
, “Barriers to the adoption of photovoltaic systems: The state of the art
,” Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev.
49
, 60
–66
(2015
).30.
Macintosh
, A.
and Wilkinson
, D.
, “Searching for public benefits in solar subsidies: A case study on the Australian government's residential photovoltaic rebate program
,” Energy Policy
39
, 3199
–3209
(2011
).31.
Martyman
, see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Martyman/My_Images/Maps#/media/File:ACT-Jervis_Bay-MJC.png for “ACT-Jervis Bay-MJC - User: Martyman/My Images/Maps – Wikipedia, 2016
” (last accessed June 5, 2019).32.
Musterd
, S.
and Andersson
, R.
, “Housing mix, social mix, and social opportunities
,” Urban Aff. Rev.
40
, 761
–790
(2005
).33.
Nelson
, J. K.
and Brewer
, C. A.
, “Evaluating data stability in aggregation structures across spatial scales: Revisiting the modifiable areal unit problem
,” Cartogr. Geogr. Inf. Sci.
44
, 35
–50
(2017
).34.
Poruschi
, L.
, Ambrey
, C. L.
, and Smart
, J. C. R.
, “Revisiting feed-in tariffs in Australia: A review
,” Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev.
82
, 260
–270
(2018
).35.
Poruschi
, L.
and Ambrey
, C. L.
, “Energy justice, the built environment, and solar photovoltaic (PV) energy transitions in urban Australia: A dynamic panel data analysis
,” Energy Res. Soc. Sci.
48
, 22
–32
(2019
).36.
R Core Team
, R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing
(R Foundation for Statistical Computing
, 2018
).37.
Passey
, R.
, Watt
, M.
, Bruce
, A.
, and MacGill
, I.
, “Who pays, who benefits? The financial impacts of solar photovoltaic systems and air-conditioners on Australian households
,” Energy Res. Soc. Sci.
39
, 198
–215
(2018
).38.
REN21
, Renewables 2018 Global Status Report
(REN21 Secretariat
, 2018
).39.
Robinson
, W. S.
, “Ecological correlations and the behavior of individuals
,” Am. Sociol. Rev.
15
, 351
–357
(1950
).40.
Simpson
, G.
and Clifton
, J.
, “Subsidies for residential solar photovoltaic energy systems in Western Australia: Distributional, procedural and outcome justice
,” Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev.
65
, 262
–273
(2016
).41.
Sommerfeld
, J.
, Buys
, L.
, Mengersen
, K.
, and Vine
, D.
, “Influence of demographic variables on uptake of domestic solar photovoltaic technology
,” Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev.
67
, 315
–323
(2017
).42.
Stevens
, F. R.
, Gaughan
, A. E.
, Linard
, C.
, and Tatem
, A. J.
, “Disaggregating census data for population mapping using Random forests with remotely-sensed and ancillary data
,” PLoS One
10
, e0107042
(2015
).43.
Stock
, A.
and Stock
, P.
, Game On: The Australian Renewable Energy Race Heats Up
(Climate Council
, 2016
).44.
Tidemann
, C.
, Engerer
, N.
, Franklin
, E.
, Hussey
, K.
, and Pezzey
, J. C. V.
, “Promoting behind-the-meter battery storage: Options for more effective government support and regulation
,” Int. J. Technol. Intell. Plann.
12
, 77
–98
(2018
).45.
Tranmer
, M.
and Steel
, D. G.
, “Using census data to investigate the causes of the ecological fallacy
,” Environ. Plann. A
30
, 817
–831
(1998
).46.
U.S. Census Bureau
, see https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?src=bkmk for “American FactFinder - Results, 2018
” (last accessed February 14, 2019).47.
University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health (UWSMPH)
, see https://www.neighborhoodatlas.medicine.wisc.edu/ for “Area Deprivation Index, 2018
” (last accessed February 21, 2019).48.
van der Kam
, M. J.
, Meelen
, A. A. H.
, van Sark
, W. G. J. H. M.
, and Alkemade
, F.
, “Diffusion of solar photovoltaic systems and electric vehicles among Dutch consumers: Implications for the energy transition
,” Energy Res. Soc. Sci.
46
, 68
–85
(2018
).49.
Zimmermann
, M.
and Pye
, S.
, “Inequality in energy and climate policies: Assessing distributional impact consideration in UK policy appraisal
,” Energy Policy
123
, 594
–601
(2018
).© 2019 Author(s).
2019
Author(s)
You do not currently have access to this content.
