We present nonequilibrium dissipative particle dynamics (DPD) simulations of cross-linked elastomers containing solid filler particles at 30% volume fraction. We study systematically the effect of the morphology (dispersed or aggregated particles) and of the effective particle–particle interactions. In addition, we have experimented by replacing the standard harmonic DPD bonds with other potential functions, conceived to deal with the finite extensibility of the polymer chains and the possibility of a slow equilibrium between strongly and weakly adsorbed chains at the rubber-filler interface. The simulation results shed some light on the basic mechanisms of rubber reinforcement, including the nonlinearity and history dependence commonly known as “Payne effect” and “Mullins effect.”
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