General trends in integrated circuit technology toward smaller device dimensions, lower thermal budgets, and simplified processing steps present severe physical and engineering challenges to ion implantation. These challenges, together with the need for physically based models at exceedingly small dimensions, are leading to a new level of understanding of fundamental defect science in Si. In this article, we review the current status and future trends in ion implantation of Si at low and high energies with particular emphasis on areas where recent advances have been made and where further understanding is needed. Particularly interesting are the emerging approaches to defect and dopant distribution modeling, transient enhanced diffusion, high energy implantation and defect accumulation, and metal impurity gettering. Developments in the use of ion beams for analysis indicate much progress has been made in one-dimensional analysis, but that severe challenges for two-dimensional characterization remain. The breadth of ion beams in the semiconductor industry is illustrated by the successful use of focused beams for machining and repair, and the development of ion-based lithographic systems. This suite of ion beam processing, modeling, and analysis techniques will be explored both from the perspective of the emerging science issues and from the technological challenges.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
J. W. Mayer, L. Eriksson, and J. A. Davies, Ion Implantation in Semiconductors (Academic, New York, 1970).
3.
G. Dearnaley, J. H. Freeman, R. S. Nelson, and J. Stephen, Ion Implantation (North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1973).
4.
J. M. Poate and J. W. Mayer, Laser Annealing of Semiconductors (Academic, New York, 1982).
5.
L. C. Feldman, J. W. Mayer, and S. T. Picraux, Materials Analysis by Ion Channeling (Academic, New York, 1982).
6.
J. S. Williams and J. M. Poate, Ion Implantation and Beam Processing (Academic, Sydney, 1984).
7.
J. F. Ziegler, Handbook of Ion Implantation Technology (North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1992).
8.
Ninth International Conference on Ion Beam Modification of Materials
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
106
, 1
(1995
).9.
Tenth International Conference on Ion Implantation Technology
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
96
, 1
(1995
).10.
Eleventh International Conference on Ion Beam Analysis
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
85
, 1
(1994
).11.
Seventh International Conference on Radiation Effects in Insulators
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
91
, 1
(1994
).12.
The National Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (Semiconductor Industry Association, San Jose, CA, 1994).
13.
A. E.
Michel
, W.
Rausch
, P. A.
Rousheim
, and R. H.
Kastl
, Appl. Phys. Lett.
50
, 416
(1987
).14.
A. F.
Tasch
, C.
Park
, J.
Alvis
, and S.
Novak
, J. Electrochem. Soc.
136
, 810
(1989
).15.
C. Park, K. M. Klein, A. F. Tasch, R. B. Simonton, S. Noval, and G. Lux, COMPEL 10, 331 (1991).
16.
D. H.
Lim
, S.-H.
Yang
, S. J.
Morrisand
, and A. F.
Tasch
, Tech. Dig. Int. Electron Devices Meet.
, 291
(1993
).17.
S.-H.
Yang
, S. J.
Morris
, D. H.
Lim
, and A. F.
Tasch
, J. Electron. Mater.
23
, 801
(1994
).18.
S. J.
Morris
, S.-H.
Yang
, D. H.
Lim
, C.
Park
, K. M.
Klein
, M.
Manassian
, and A. F.
Tasch
, IEEE Trans. Semicond. Manuf.
8
, 408
(1995
).19.
20.
K. M.
Klein
, C.
Park
, and A. F.
Tasch
, Tech. Dig. Int. Electron Devices Meet.
, 745
(1990
).21.
K. M.
Klein
, C.
Park
, and A. F.
Tasch
, IEEE Trans. Electron Devices
39
, 1614
(1992
).22.
S.-H. Yang, S. J. Morris, S. Tian, M. Morris, K. Parab, B. Obradovic, A. F. Tasch, and C. Snell, Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Process Physics and Modeling in Semiconductor Technology, Los Angeles, 1996, Meeting Abstracts, Vol. 96-1, pp. 485–486, Spring Meeting of the Electrochemical Society, May 5–10, 1996.
23.
J. F. Ziegler, J. P. Biersack, and U. Littmark, The Stopping and Range of Ions in Solids (Pergamon, New York, 1985), Vol. I.
24.
K. M.
Klein
, C.
Park
, and A. F.
Tasch
, Appl. Phys. Lett.
57
, 2701
(1990
).25.
K. M.
Klein
, C.
Park
, and A. F.
Tasch
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
59/60
, 60
(1991
).26.
R. H. Wolfe, M. Needels, M. Arias, and J. D. Joannopoulos, IEEE Comput. Graphics Appl. 12, 45 (1992).
27.
L. A.
Christel
, J. F.
Gibbons
, and T. W.
Sigmon
, J. Appl. Phys.
52
, 7143
(1981
).28.
S. J.
Morris
, S.-H.
Yang
, S.
Tian
, K.
Parab
, and A. F.
Tasch
, Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc.
396
, 27
(1996
);S. J. Morris, D. Lim, S.-H. Yang, S. Tian, K. Parab, A. F. Tasch, and M. E. Law, Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Process Physics and Modeling in Semiconductor Technology, Los Angeles, 1996, Meeting Abstracts, Vol. 96-1, pp. 483–484, Spring Meeting of the Electrochemical Society, May 5–10, 1996.
29.
M. P. Allen and D. J. Tildesley, Computer Simulation of Liquids (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1987).
30.
31.
J. E.
Rubio
, L. A.
Marques
, M.
Jaraiz
, L. A.
Bailon
, and J.
Barbolla
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
102
, 301
(1995
).32.
T.
Diaz de la Rubia
and G. H.
Gilmer
, Phys. Rev. Lett.
74
, 2507
(1995
).33.
E.
Chason
, P. J.
Bedrossian
, K. M.
Horn
, J. Y.
Tsao
, and S. T.
Picraux
, Appl. Phys. Lett.
57
, 1793
(1990
).34.
H. L. Heinisch, Radiat. Eff. Solids 113, 53 (1990).
35.
36.
37.
38.
G. H.
Gilmer
, T.
Diaz de la Rubia
, M.
Jaraiz
, and D.
Stock
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
102
, 247
(1995
).39.
M. H.
Grabow
, G. H.
Gilmer
, and A. F.
Baker
, Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc.
141
, 349
(1989
).40.
P. E.
Blochl
, E.
Smargiassi
, R.
Car
, D. B.
Laks
, and S. T.
Pantelides
, Phys. Rev. Lett.
70
, 2435
(1993
).41.
J.
Zhu
, L.
Yang
, C.
Mailhiot
, T.
Diaz de la Rubia
, and G. H.
Gilmer
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
102
, 29
(1995
).42.
L. A.
Miller
, D. K.
Brice
, A. K.
Prinja
, and S. T.
Picraux
, Phys. Rev. B
49
, 16
953
(1994
).43.
M. J.
Caturla
, T.
Diaz de la Rubia
, and G. H.
Gilmer
, Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc.
316
, 111
(1994
).44.
K.
Gärtner
, D.
Stock
, B.
Weber
, G.
Betz
, M.
Hautala
, G.
Hobler
, M.
Hou
, S.
Sarite
, W.
Eckstein
, J. J.
Jiménez-Rodrı́guez
, A. M. C.
Pérez-Martı́n
, E. P.
Andribet
, V.
Konoplev
, A.
Gras-Marti
, M.
Posselt
, M. H.
Shapiro
, T. A.
Tombrello
, H. M.
Urbassek
, H.
Hensel
, Y.
Yamamura
, and W.
Takeuchi
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
102
, 183
(1995
).45.
J. P.
Biersack
and J. F.
Ziegler
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res.
194
, 93
(1982
).46.
J. B.
Gibson
, A. N.
Goland
, M.
Milgram
, and G. H.
Vineyard
, Phys. Rev.
120
, 1229
(1960
).47.
T.
Diaz de la Rubia
, R. S.
Averback
, R.
Benedek
, and W. E.
King
, Phys. Rev. Lett.
59
, 1930
(1987
).48.
J. A.
Floro
, B. K.
Kellerman
, E.
Chason
, S. T.
Picraux
, D. K.
Brice
, and K. M.
Horn
, J. Appl. Phys.
77
, 2351
(1995
).49.
P.
Bedrossian
, J. E.
Houston
, J. Y.
Tsao
, E.
Chason
, and S. T.
Picraux
, Phys. Rev. Lett.
67
, 124
(1991
);P. J.
Bedrossian
, M. J.
Caturla
, and T.
Diaz de la Rubia
, Appl. Phys. Lett.
70
, 176
(1997
).50.
B. K.
Kellerman
, J. A.
Floro
, E.
Chason
, D. K.
Brice
, and S. T.
Picraux
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A
13
, 972
(1995
).51.
D. K.
Brice
, J. Y.
Tsao
, and S. T.
Picraux
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
44
, 68
(1989
).52.
M.
Jaraiz
, G. H.
Gilmer
, J. M.
Poate
, and T.
Diaz de la Rubia
, Appl. Phys. Lett.
68
, 409
(1996
).53.
R. B. Fair, Impurity Doping Processes in Silicon, edited by F. F. Y. Yang (North-Holland, New York, 1981).
54.
P. M.
Fahey
, P. B.
Griffin
, and J. D.
Plummer
, Rev. Mod. Phys.
61
, 289
(1989
).55.
P. A.
Stolk
, H.-J.
Gossmann
, D. J.
Eaglesham
, and J. M.
Poate
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
96
, 187
(1995
).56.
P. A.
Stolk
, H.-J.
Gossmann
, D. J.
Eaglesham
, D. C.
Jacobson
, and J. M.
Poate
, Appl. Phys. Lett.
66
, 568
(1995
).57.
H.-J.
Gossmann
, F. C.
Unterwald
, and H. S.
Luftman
, J. Appl. Phys.
73
, 8237
(1993
).58.
J. M.
Poate
, D. J.
Eaglesham
, G. H.
Gilmer
, H.-J.
Gossmann
, M.
Jaraiz
, C. S.
Rafferty
, and P. A.
Stolk
, Tech. Dig. Int. Electron Devices Meet.
, 77
(1995
).59.
H.-J.
Gossmann
, C. S.
Rafferty
, H. S.
Luftman
, F. C.
Unterwald
, T.
Boone
, and J. M.
Poate
, Appl. Phys. Lett.
63
, 639
(1993
).60.
J. K.
Listebarger
, K. S.
Jones
, and J. A.
Slinkman
, J. Appl. Phys.
73
, 4815
(1993
).61.
H. L.
Meng
, S.
Prussin
, M. E.
Law
, and K. S.
Jones
, J. Appl. Phys.
73
, 955
(1993
).62.
D. J.
Eaglesham
, P. A.
Stolk
, H.-J.
Gossmann
, and J. M.
Poate
, Appl. Phys. Lett.
65
, 2305
(1994
).63.
D. J.
Eaglesham
, P. A.
Stolk
, H.-J.
Gossmann
, T. E.
Haynes
, and J. M.
Poate
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
106
, 191
(1995
).64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
P. B.
Griffin
and J. D.
Plummer
, Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc.
71
, 75
(1986
).69.
R. J.
Schreutelkamp
, J. S.
Custer
, J. R.
Liefting
, W. X.
Lu
, and F. W.
Saris
, Mater. Sci. Rep.
6
, 1
(1991
).70.
D. J. Eaglesham, P. A. Stolk, J.-Y. Cheng, H.-J. Gossmann, T. E. Haynes, and J. M. Poate, Microscopy of Semiconductors (Institute of Physics, Oxford, 1995), p. 451.
71.
72.
H.
Kinoshita
, T. H.
Huang
, and D. L.
Kwong
, J. Appl. Phys.
75
, 8213
(1994
).73.
74.
R. B. Fair and J. E. Rose, IEEE International Conference on Computer-Aided Design, Santa Clara, 1987 (IEEE, Piscataway, NJ, 1987), p. 248.
75.
Y. M.
Kim
, G. Q.
Lo
, H.
Kinoshita
, D. L.
Kwong
, H. H.
Tseng
, and R.
Hance
, J. Electrochem. Soc.
138
, 1122
(1991
).76.
Y.
Kim
, H. Z.
Massoud
, and R. B.
Fair
, J. Electron. Mater.
18
, 143
(1989
).77.
Y. M.
Kim
, G. Q.
Lo
, D. L.
Kwong
, H. H.
Tseng
, and R.
Hance
, Appl. Phys. Lett.
55
, 2316
(1989
).78.
79.
Proceedings of the Third International Workshop on the Measurement and Characterization of Ultra-Shallow Doping Profiles in Silicon
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
14
, (1996
).80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
J.
Zhu
, T.
Diaz de la Rubia
, L. H.
Yang
, C.
Mailhiot
, and G. H.
Gilmer
, Phys. Rev. B
54
, 4741
(1996
).85.
P. A. Schultz, J. S. Nelson, and A. F. Wright (unpublished).
86.
W. Frank, in Critical Issues in Semiconductor Materials and Processing Technologies, edited by S. Coffa (Kluwer Academic, Amsterdam, 1992), p. 383.
87.
R. J.
Dexter
, S. B.
Watelski
, and S. T.
Picraux
, Appl. Phys. Lett.
23
, 455
(1973
).88.
89.
90.
K.
Tsukamoto
, T.
Kuroi
, S.
Komori
, and Y.
Akasaka
, Solid State Technol.
35
, 49
(1992
).91.
K.
Lee
, R. H.
Yan
, D. Y.
Jeon
, G. M.
Chin
, Y. O.
Kim
, D. M.
Tennant
, B.
Razavi
, H. D.
Lin
, Y. G.
Wey
, H.
Westerwick
, M. D.
Morris
, R. W.
Johnson
, T. M.
Liu
, M.
Tarsia
, M.
Cerullo
, R. G.
Swartz
, and A.
Ourmazd
, Tech. Dig. Int. Electron Devices Meet.
, 131
(1993
).92.
93.
J.-Y.
Cheng
, D. J.
Eaglesham
, D. C.
Jacobson
, P. A.
Stolk
, J. L.
Benton
, and J. M.
Poate
, J. Appl. Phys.
80
, 2105
(1996
).94.
M.
Tamura
, T.
Ando
, and K.
Ohyu
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
59/60
, 572
(1991
).95.
96.
H. Lu, Y. Lee, L. Hite, T. Houston, Y. D. Sheu, R. Rajgopal, C. C. Shen, J. M. Hwang, and G. Pollack, Proceedings of the 1993 IEEE International SOI Conference (IEEE, Piscataway, NJ, 1993), p. 182.
97.
B.-Y. Hwang, J. Tsao, M. Racanelli, M. Huang, J. Foerstner, T. Wetteroth, and L.-S. Lim, in Ref. 96, p. 128.
98.
K.
Suma
, T.
Tsuruda
, H.
Hidaka
, T.
Eimori
, T.
Oashi
, Y.
Yamaguchi
, T.
Iwamatsu
, M.
Hirose
, F.
Morishita
, K.
Arimoto
, K.
Fujishima
, Y.
Inoue
, T.
Nishimura
, and T.
Yoshihara
, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits
29
, 1323
(1994
).99.
100.
J. P.
Biersack
and L. G.
Haggmark
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods
174
, 257
(1980
).101.
J. D.
Lee
, J. C.
Park
, S. J.
Krause
, P.
Roitman
, and M. K.
El-Ghor
, Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc.
235
, 133
(1992
).102.
O. W.
Holland
, T. P.
Sjoreen
, D.
Fathy
, and J.
Narayan
, Appl. Phys. Lett.
45
, 10
(1984
).103.
C.
Jassaud
, J.
Stomenos
, J.
Margail
, M.
Dupuy
, B.
Blanchard
, and M.
Bruel
, Appl. Phys. Lett.
46
, 1064
(1985
).104.
S.
Visitserngtrakul
, C. O.
Jung
, B. F.
Cordts
, P.
Roitman
, and S. J.
Krause
, Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc.
183
, 135
(1990
).105.
D. S.
Zhou
, O. W.
Holland
, and J. D.
Budai
, Appl. Phys. Lett.
63
, 3580
(1993
).106.
J. D.
Lee
, J. C.
Park
, D.
Veneables
, S. J.
Krause
, and P.
Roitman
, Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc.
316
, 699
(1994
).107.
O. W.
Holland
, L.
Xie
, B.
Nielsen
, and D. S.
Zhou
, J. Electron. Mater.
25
, 99
(1996
).108.
O. W.
Holland
and C. W.
White
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
59/60
, 353
(1991
).109.
J.
Linnros
, R. G.
Elliman
, and W. L.
Brown
, J. Mater. Res.
3
, 1208
(1988
).110.
G. A. Rozgonyi, S. Koveshnikov, and A. Agarwal, in Semiconductor Silicon 1994 edited by H. R. Huff, W. Bergholz, and K. Sumino (The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, NJ, 1994), Vols. 94-10, p. 868, and other articles in this volume.
111.
E. R. Weber and D. Gilles, in Semiconductor Silicon 1990, edited by H. R. Huff, K. G. Barraclough, and J. Chikawa (The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, NJ, 1990), Vol. 90-7, p. 585.
112.
W. Schroter, M. Seibt, and D. Gilles, in Materials Science and Technology, edited by R. W. Cahn, P. Haasen, and E. J. Kramer (VCH, New York, 1991), Vol. 4, p. 539.
113.
T. M.
Buck
, K. A.
Pickar
, J. M.
Poate
, and C. M.
Hsieh
, Appl. Phys. Lett.
21
, 485
(1972
).114.
T. E.
Seidel
, R. L.
Meek
, and A. G.
Cullis
, J. Appl. Phys.
46
, 600
(1975
).115.
J. R.
Liefting
, R. J.
Schreutelkamp
, W. Y.
Lu
, and F. W.
Saris
, Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc.
157
, 641
(1990
).116.
T.
Kuroi
, Y.
Kawasaki
, S.
Komori
, K.
Fukumoto
, M.
Inuishi
, K.
Tsukamoto
, H.
Shinyashiki
, and T.
Shringyoh
, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 1
32
, 303
(1993
).117.
H.
Wong
, N. W.
Cheung
, and P. K.
Chu
, Appl. Phys. Lett.
52
, 889
(1988
).118.
D. D.
Jacobson
, A.
Kamgar
, D. J.
Eaglesham
, E. J.
Lloyd
, S. J.
Hillenium
, and J. M.
Poate
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
96
, 416
(1995
).119.
S. M. Myers, D. M. Follstaedt, D. M. Bishop, and J. W. Medernach, in Ref. 110, p. 808.
120.
S. M.
Myers
, D. M.
Bishop
, D. M.
Follstaedt
, H. J.
Stein
, and W. R.
Wampler
, Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc.
283
, 549
(1993
).121.
S. M.
Myers
, D. M.
Follstaedt
, G. A.
Petersen
, C. H.
Seager
, H. J.
Stein
, and W. R.
Wampler
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
106
, 379
(1995
).122.
D. M.
Follstaedt
, S. M.
Myers
, G. A.
Petersen
, and J. D.
Medernach
, J. Electron. Mater.
25
, 151
(1996
);123.
V.
Raineri
, A.
Battaglia
, and E.
Rimini
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
96
, 249
(1995
).124.
J.
Wong-Leung
, J. S.
Williams
, R. G.
Elliman
, E.
Nygren
, D. J.
Eaglesham
, D. C.
Jacobson
, and J. M.
Poate
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
96
, 253
(1995
).125.
M. H. F.
Overwijk
, J.
Politiek
, R. C. M.
de Kruif
, and P. C.
Zalm
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
96
, 257
(1995
).126.
C. C.
Griffioen
, J. H.
Evans
, P. C.
de Jong
, and A.
Van Veen
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
27
, 417
(1987
).127.
S. M.
Myers
and G. A.
Petersen
, Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc.
396
, 733
(1996
).128.
S. M.
Myers
, G. A.
Petersen
, and C. H.
Seager
, J. Appl. Phys.
80
, 3717
(1996
).129.
M. Gardner, D. Wrister, J. Fulford, and J. Borland, 1994 Symposium on VLSI Technology (IEEE, Piscataway, NJ, 1994), p. 111.
130.
P. A.
Stolk
, J. L.
Benton
, D. J.
Eaglesham
, D. C.
Jacobsen
, J.-Y.
Cheng
, J. M.
Poate
, S. M.
Myers
, and T. E.
Haynes
, Appl. Phys. Lett.
68
, 51
(1996
).131.
T. Ando, S. Isomae, and M. Tamura, in Defects in Silicon II, edited by W. M. Bullis, U. Gösele, and F. Shimura (The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, NJ, 1991), Vol. 91-9, p. 659.
132.
Data courtesy of C. Hitzman, Charles Evans and Associates, Redwood City, CA.
133.
C. W.
Magee
and M. R.
Frost
, Int. J. Mass Spectrom. Ion Processes
143
, 29
(1995
).134.
Data courtesy of E. Ishida, Advanced Micro Devices, Sunnyvale, CA.
135.
K. H.
Weiner
, P. G.
Carey
, A. M.
McCarthy
, and T. W.
Sigmon
, Microelectron. Eng.
20
, 107
(1993
).136.
P. Williams, in Practical Surface Analysis, Vol. 2 Ion and Neutral Spectroscopy, edited by D. Briggs and M. P. Seah (Wiley, New York, 1992).
137.
G. A.
Cooke
, P.
Pearson
, R.
Gibbs
, M. G.
Dowsett
, and C.
Hill
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
14
, 348
(1996
).138.
R.
Alvis
, S.
Luning
, L.
Thompson
, R.
Sinclair
, and P.
Griffin
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
14
, 231
(1996
).139.
D.
Venables
and D. M.
Maher
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
14
, 421
(1996
).140.
M.
Berrett
, M.
Dennis
, D.
Tiffin
, Y.
Li
, and C. K.
Shih
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
14
, 447
(1996
).141.
G.
Neubauer
, A.
Erickson
, C. C.
Williams
, J. J.
Kopanski
, M.
Rogers
, and D.
Adderton
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
14
, 426
(1996
).142.
W.-K. Chu, J. W. Mayer, and M.-A. Nicolet, Backscattering Spectrometry (Academic, New York, 1978).
143.
An example of a simulation program is RUMP,
L. R.
Doolittle
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
9
, 344
(1985
).144.
L. C. Feldman and J. W. Mayer, Fundamentals of Surface and Thin Film Analysis (North-Holland, New York, 1986).
145.
M. Ohring, The Materials Science of Thin Films (Academic, Boston, 1992).
146.
Handbook of Modern Ion Beam Materials Analysis, edited by J. R. Tesmer, M. Nastasi, C. J. Maggiore, J. C. Barbour, and J. W. Mayer (Materials Research Society, Pittsburgh, 1995).
147.
G.
Vizkelethy
, P.
Revesz
, J. W.
Mayer
, and J.
Li
, Surf. Interface Anal.
20
, 309
(1993
).148.
Z.
Atzmon
, A. E.
Bair
, E. J.
Jaquez
, J. W.
Mayer
, D.
Chrandrasekhar
, D. J.
Smith
, R. L.
Hervig
, and McD.
Robinson
, Appl. Phys. Lett.
65
, 2559
(1994
).149.
J. C. Barbour and B. L. Doyle, in Ref. 46.
150.
A. E.
Bair
, Z.
Atzmon
, S. W.
Russell
, T. L.
Alford
, J. W.
Mayer
, and J. C.
Barbour
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
103
, 339
(1995
).151.
W.
Assmann
, P.
Hartung
, H.
Huber
, P.
Staat
, H.
Steffeus
, and Ch.
Steinhauser
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
85
, 726
(1991
).152.
R.
Siegele
, H.
Haugen
, J. A.
Davies
, J. S.
Forster
, and H. R.
Andrews
, J. Appl. Phys.
76
, 4524
(1994
).153.
J. A.
Knapp
and B. L.
Doyle
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
45
, 143
(1990
).154.
M. H.
Mendenhall
and R. A.
Weller
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
47
, 193
(1990
).155.
J. A.
Knapp
, D. K.
Brice
, and J. C.
Banks
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
108
, 324
(1996
);J. A. Knapp, J. C. Banks, and B. L. Doyle, Sandia Report SAND94-0391, April 1994.
156.
157.
G. L.
Klody
, J. B.
Schroeder
, J. A.
Ferry
, T. J.
Pollock
, and E. D.
Adams
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
56/57
, 704
(1991
).158.
A.
Kinomura
, M.
Takai
, S.
Namba
, H.
Ryssel
, P. H.
Tsien
, E.
Burte
, M.
Satou
, and A.
Chayahara
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
64
, 770
(1992
).159.
K. M.
Horn
, B. L.
Doyle
, F. W.
Sexton
, J. S.
Laird
, A.
Saint
, M.
Cholewa
, and G. J. F.
Legge
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
77
, 355
(1993
).160.
F. W.
Sexton
, K. M.
Horn
, B. L.
Doyle
, J. S.
Laird
, M.
Cholewa
, A.
Saint
, and G. J. F.
Legge
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
79
, 436
(1993
).161.
162.
A.
Hori
, H.
Nakaoka
, H.
Umimoto
, K.
Yamashita
, M.
Takase
, N.
Shimizu
, B.
Mizuno
, and S.
Odanaka
, Tech. Dig. Int. Electron Devices Meet.
, 485
(1994
).163.
J. H. Freeman, in Ion Implantation Technology-’92, edited by D. F. Downey, M. Farley, K. S. Jones, and G. Ryding (North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1993), pp. 357–364.
164.
H.
Ito
and N. R.
White
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
55
, 527
(1991
).165.
M. A. Foad, D. G. Armour, and J. G. England, in Ion Implantation Technology-’94, edited by S. Coffa, G. Ferla, F. Priolo, and E. Rimini (North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1995), p. 543.
166.
B. O. Pedersen, R. B. Liebert, D. F. Downey, and S. Satoh, in Ref. 163, p. 587.
167.
N.
White
, M. E.
Mack
, G.
Ryding
, D. H.
Douglas-Hamilton
, K.
Steeples
, M.
Farley
, V.
Gillis
, V.
Benveniste
, A.
Wittkower
, and R.
Lamracht
, Solid State Technol.
32
, 568
(1989
).168.
Y.
Sato
, K.
Anazi
, and F.
Todokoro
, IEEE Trans. Semicond. Manuf.
5
, 329
(1992
);169.
M. I.
Current
, W.
Lukaszek
, and M. C.
Vella
, N. H.
Tripsas
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
96
, 34
(1995
).170.
K. F. Schuegraf and C.-M. Hu, 1994 IEEE International Reliability Physics Symposium Proceedings (IEEE, Piscataway, NJ, 1994), p. 126.
171.
M. C.
Vella
, W.
Lukaszek
, M. I.
Current
, and N. H.
Tripsas
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
96
, 48
(1995
).172.
M.
Duane
, P.
Nunan
, M.
ter Beek
, and R.
Subramanyan
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
14
, 218
(1996
).173.
R.
Simonton
J.
Shi
, T.
Boden
, P.
Maillot
, and L. A.
Larson
, Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc.
316
, 153
(1994
).174.
M. I.
Current
, M.
Inoue
, S.
Nakashima
, N.
Ohno
, M.
Kuribara
, Y.
Matsunaga
, T.
Hara
, D.
Wagner
, S.
Leung
, B.
Adibi
, G.
Lecouras
, and L. A.
Larson
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
74
, 175
(1993
).175.
M. I. Current, T. Hara, S. Fujii, M. Inoue, and N. Ohno, Advanced Materials ’93, Vol. IV IUMRS (North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1994), p. 401.
176.
T. Suzuki, H. Yamaguchi, S. Ohzono, and N. Natsuaki, Proceedings of the International Conference on Solid State Devices and Materials-’90, (Japan Society of Applied Physics, Tokyo, 1990), p. 1163.
177.
T. Motooka, F. Kobayashi, P. Fons, T. Tokuyama, T. Suzuki, and N. Natsuaki, Proceedings of the International Conference on Solid State Devices and Materials-’91 (Japan Society of Applied Physics, Tokyo, 1991), pp. 44–46.
178.
T. Kuroi, S. Komori, K. Fukumoto, Y. Mashiko, K. Tsukamoto, and Y. Akasaka, in Ref. 177, pp. 56–58.
179.
B. Mizuno (private communication).
180.
M. I. Current, L. A. Larson, W. A. Keenan, and C. B. Yarling, in Handbook of Ion Implantation Technology, edited by J. F. Ziegler (North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1992), p. 647.
181.
M. I. Current, B. Adibi, T. Marin, S. Leung, D. W. Wagner, P. McDonagh, N. Clarke, M. T. Wauk, N. Sugiyama, Y. Matsunaga, and J. W. Wilson, in Ref. 165, p. 622–625.
182.
M. I.
Current
, N.
Ohno
, K.
Hurley
, W. A.
Keenan
, T. L.
Guitner
, and C.
Jeynes
, Solid State Technol.
36
, 111
(1993
).183.
M. I. Current, I. Yamada, N. W. Cheung, P. L. F. Hemment, and K. J. Reeson, in Ref. 180, p. 363.
184.
E. Ishida, A Survey of Ultra-shallow Doping Technology, Sematech Technical Transcript No. 95062857A-TR (1995).
185.
186.
P. A.
Rose
, see also other proceedings of Ion Implantation Technology (earlier known as Ion Implantation Equipment and Techniques) in Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res.
189
, (1981
);187.
International Workshop on Plasma-based Ion Implantation
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
12
, (1994
).188.
M. R. Sardela, H. Radpisheh, L. Hultman, and G. V. Hasson, Proceedings of the International Conference on Solid State Devices and Materials-’93 (Japan Society of Applied Physics, 1993), p. 222.
189.
I.
Yamada
, J.
Matsuo
, Z.
Insepov
, and M.
Akizuki
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
106
, 165
(1995
).190.
M. I.
Current
, R.
Mathur
, M.
Kump
, and L. A.
Larson
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
102
, 198
(1995
).191.
Workshops on Measurement and Characterization of Ultra-Shallow Doping Profiles in Semiconductor
J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
10
, (1992
);Workshops on Measurement and Characterization of Ultra-Shallow Doping Profiles in Semiconductor
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
12
, (1994
).192.
M. T. Wauk, M. Castle, J. G. England, and M. I. Current, Microcontamination 12, 29 (1994).
193.
N.
Natsuaki
, T.
Kamata
, K.
Kondo
, and Y.
Kureishi
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
96
, 62
(1995
).194.
195.
S. V.
Pendharkar
, J. C.
Wolfe
, H. R.
Rampersad
, Y.-L.
Chau
, D. L.
Licon
, M. D.
Morgan
, W. E.
Horne
, R. C.
Tiberio
, and J. N.
Randall
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
13
, 2588
(1995
).196.
J. C.
Wolfe
, S.
Sen
, S. V.
Pendhakar
, P.
Manager
, and A. R.
Shimkunas
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
10
, 2716
(1992
).197.
P. E.
Manager
, A. R.
Shimkunas
, J. C.
Wolfe
, S.
Sen
, H.
Loschner
, and G.
Stengl
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
10
, 2819
(1992
).198.
A.
Birman
, B.
Levush
, J.
Melngailis
, H.
Löschner
, and G.
Stengl
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
13
, 2584
(1995
).199.
H. Löschner and G. Stengl, IMS (private communication).
200.
A. D.
Dubner
, A.
Wagner
, J. P.
Levin
, and J.
Mauer
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
10
, 3212
(1992
).201.
I.
Higashikawa
, K.
Koga
, T.
Tanaka
, M.
Morigami
, and T.
Itoh
, Microelectron. Eng.
21
, 87
(1993
).202.
H.
Löschner
, G.
Stengl
, I. L.
Berry
, J. N.
Randall
, J. C.
Wolfe
, W.
Finkelstein
, R. W.
Hill
, J.
Melngailis
, L. R.
Harriott
, W.
Brünger
, and L. M.
Buchmann
, Proc. SPIE
2194
, 384
(1994
).203.
H.
Löschner
, G.
Stengl
, A.
Chalupka
, J.
Fegerl
, R.
Fischer
, E.
Hammel
, G.
Lammer
, L.
Malek
, R.
Nowak
, C.
Traher
, H.
Vonach
, and P.
Wolf
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
11
, 2409
(1993
).204.
Provided by the Advanced Lithography Group, Columbia, MD.
205.
W. H.
Brünger
, L.-M.
Buchmann
, M. A.
Torkler
, and W.
Finkelstein
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
12
, 3547
(1994
).206.
G.
Stengl
, G.
Bösch
, A.
Chalupka
, J.
Fegerl
, R.
Fischer
, G.
Lammer
, H.
Löschner
, L.
Malek
, R.
Nowak
, C.
Traher
, P.
Wolf
, and H.
Vonach
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
10
, 2838
(1992
).207.
A.
Chalupka
, G.
Stengl
, H.
Buschbeck
, G.
Lammer
, H.
Vonach
, R.
Fischer
, E.
Hammel
, H.
Löschner
, R.
Nowak
, and P.
Wolf
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
12
, 3513
(1994
).208.
E.
Hammel
, A.
Chalupka
, J.
Fergerl
, R.
Fischer
, G.
Lammer
, H.
Löschner
, L.
Malke
, R.
Nowak
, G.
Stengl
, H.
Vonach
, P.
Wolf
, W. H.
Brünger
, L.-M.
Buchmann
, M.
Torkler
, E.
Cekan
, W.
Fallmann
, F.
Paschke
, G.
Stangl
, F.
Thalinger
, I. L.
Berry
, L. R.
Harriott
, W.
Finkelstein
, and R. W.
Hill
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
12
, 3533
(1994
).209.
A detailed discussion of liquid metal ion sources can be found in P. D. Prewett and G. L. R. Mair, Focused Ion Beams from Liquid Metal Ion Sources (Research Studies Press and Wiley, 1991), Chaps. I–IV.
210.
G. M.
Atkinson
, F. P.
Stratton
, and R. L.
Kubena
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
10
, 3104
(1992
).211.
Figure provided by FEI, Beaverton, OR.
212.
Figure provided by Micrion Corporation, Peabody, MA.
213.
214.
215.
X.
Xu
, A. D.
Della Ratta
, J.
Sosonkina
, and J.
Melngailis
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
10
, 2675
(1992
).216.
K.
Gamo
, Y.
Ochiai
, and S.
Namba
, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys.
21
, L792
(1982
).217.
P. R.
Kola
, G. K.
Celler
, and L. R.
Harriott
, Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc.
279
, 593
(1993
).218.
J. D.
Casey
, A. F.
Doyle
, R. G.
Lee
, D. K.
Stewart
, and H.
Zimmerman
, Microelectron. Eng.
24
, 43
(1994
);D. C.
Ferranti
, J. C.
Morgan
, B.
Thompson
, and W. C.
Joyce
, Proc. SPIE
2194
, 394
(1994
).219.
Z.
Xu
, K.
Gamo
, and S.
Namba
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
6
, 1039
(1988
).220.
T. S.
Stark
, G. M.
Shedd
, J.
Vitarelli
, D. P.
Griffis
, and P. E.
Russell
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
13
, 2565
(1995
).221.
A.
Wagner
, P.
Longo
, S.
Cohen
, and P.
Blauner
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
13
, 2629
(1995
).222.
223.
P.
Blauner
, Y.
Butt
, J. S.
Ro
, C. V.
Thompson
, and J.
Melngailis
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
7
, 1816
(1989
).224.
A. D.
Della Ratta
, J.
Melngailis
, and C. V.
Thompson
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
11
, 2195
(1993
).225.
J.
Funatsu
, C. V.
Thompson
, and J.
Melngailis
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
14
, 179
(1996
).226.
J. Melngailis, in Handbook of VLSI Microlithography, edited by W. B. Glendinning and J. N. Helbert (Noyesce, Park Ridge, NJ, 1991).
227.
H.
Lezec
, C. R.
Musil
, J.
Melngailis
, L. J.
Mahoney
, and J. D.
Woodhouse
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
9
, 2709
(1991
).228.
D.
Vignaud
, S.
Etchin
, K. S.
Liao
, C. R.
Musil
, D. A.
Antoniadis
, and J.
Melngailis
, Appl. Phys. Lett.
60
, 2267
(1992
).229.
R. H. Walden, A. E. Schmitz, L. E. Larson, A. R. Kramer, and J. Pasiecznik, Proceedings of the IEEE Custom Integrated Circuits Conference (IEEE, Piscataway, NJ, 1988), p. 18.7.1.
230.
H.
Lezec
, K.
Ismail
, L. J.
Mahoney
, M. I.
Shepard
, D. A.
Antoniadis
, and J.
Melngailis
, IEEE Electron Device Lett.
9
, 476
(1988
).231.
A. Chu, L. Chu, W. Macropoulos, K. Khair, R. Patel, M. Cordro, H. J. Lezec, J. Melngailis, and L. J. Mahoney, 1991 IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium Digest (IEEE, Piscataway, NJ, 1991), p. 1179.
232.
A. L.
Lattes
, S. C.
Munroe
, M. M.
Sesaver
, J. E.
Murguia
, and J.
Melngailis
, IEEE Trans. Electron Devices
38
, 1772
(1992
).233.
J. E.
Murguia
, M. I.
Shepard
, J.
Melngailis
, A. L.
Lattes
, and S. C.
Munroe
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
9
, 2714
(1991
).234.
J. Murguia, Ph.D. thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
235.
A. F.
Evason
, J. R. A.
Cleaver
, and H.
Ahmed
, IEEE Electron Device Lett.
9
, 281
(1988
);A. F.
Evason
, J. R. A.
Cleaver
, and H.
Ahmed
, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
6
, 1832
(1988
).236.
For a review of focused ion beam lithography, see
J.
Melngailis
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
80/81
, 1271
(1993
).237.
Ch.
Wilbertz
, Th.
Maisch
, D.
Huttner
, K.
Bohringer
, K.
Jousten
, and S.
Kalbitzer
, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B
63
, 120
(1992
).
This content is only available via PDF.
© 1997 American Institute of Physics.
1997
American Institute of Physics
You do not currently have access to this content.
