PVC/MXene electrospun film triboelectric nanogenerator for efficient mechanical energy harvesting and multifunctional human motion sensing Open Access

Recently, flexible electronics, particularly wearable electronic devices, have been driving the advancement of global information and technology.^1,2 These wearable devices, such as smartphones, smartwatches, fitness trackers, and human motion sensors, are increasingly integrated into daily life for health monitoring, activity tracking, and personalized data collection.³ Efficient energy solutions are essential for the sustainable operation of wearable devices, especially those used for continuous human motion sensing, positioning self-powered systems as a compelling alternative to conventional battery-powered models.^4,5 Traditional battery-based devices are often limited by their inflexibility, the frequent need for recharging, and the labor-intensive process of battery replacement, which can hinder their practical application, particularly in dynamic environments involving human motion.⁶ Hence, triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) have gained significant attention as innovative and promising energy harvesting devices capable of efficiently converting ambient mechanical energy, including that generated by human motion, into electrical energy.^7–18 Through the coupling of triboelectrification and electrostatic induction, TENGs can continuously power low-power electronic devices by converting mechanical energy, especially the low-frequency and subtle motions of the human body, such as walking, running, or joint movements, into usable electrical output.^19–24 Moreover, TENGs can serve as active wearable sensors for human motion monitoring, providing real-time, self-powered electrical signals without requiring an external power source.^25,26 This dual functionality enables TENGs to be applied in a variety of scenarios, from tracking human motion in sports and rehabilitation to monitoring bio-mechanical signals for health diagnostics. TENGs have become key components in wearable electronics due to their high energy conversion efficiency, with the selection of suitable triboelectric materials being critical for optimizing performance in motion sensing and energy harvesting applications.²⁷ 

MXenes, a class of 2D transition metal carbides and nitrides, are promising materials for energy storage, electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding, and wearable electronics due to their excellent conductivity, electrochemical activity, and volumetric capacitance.^28,29 The Ti₃C₂T_x sheets exhibit outstanding metallic conductivity and a highly electronegative surface, attributed to the abundance of –F and oxygen-containing functional groups.³⁰ In particular, MXenes, especially Ti₃C₂T_x, have emerged as promising candidates for developing TENG materials with enhanced electronegativity to improve output performance. The combination of their exceptional conductivity, functional surface chemistry, and structural versatility positions MXenes as key materials for advancing next-generation TENG technologies and other energy-related applications. Electrospinning, recognized as a simple, versatile, and cost-effective technique, has been extensively applied in the fabrication of micro/nanofibers, particularly in the domains of flexible electronics and energy harvesting.^31,32 With their high specific surface area, porosity, and excellent mechanical properties, independent electrospun fibers have emerged as an ideal substrate for wearable TENGs. These fibers not only exhibit remarkable flexibility but also provide a large contact area and robust mechanical stability, making them highly suitable for dynamic and demanding applications.³³ 

In addition, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) has further gained attention as an attractive material for electrospinning substrates owing to its exceptional flexibility, processability, and chemical stability.³⁴ These properties are particularly advantageous in the development of TENGs with enhanced weather resistance and prolonged service life, where PVC’s performance benefits become even more pronounced. The integration of PVC with advanced materials, such as MXene, opens new avenues for improving the performance and durability of flexible TENGs. Despite its potential, a critical challenge in the electrospinning process lies in preparing a uniform composite solution containing MXene sheets while mitigating agglomeration.³⁵ Achieving a homogeneous dispersion of MXene is essential for producing bead-free, continuous electrospun fibers, as the microscopic uniformity of the fibers has a direct impact on the overall performance of the TENG.^36,37 Moreover, while MXene has been widely acknowledged as a promising filler for enhancing triboelectric and electrical properties, studies on its incorporation into PVC-based nanofiber composites remain scarce. In particular, the role of MXene in enhancing the polarization performance of PVC fibers and the synergistic effects of MXene and PVC-based fibers in flexible TENG applications have yet to be comprehensively explored and optimized.

Here, we designed the PVC/MXene electrospun film fabricate triboelectric nanogenerator (PM-TENG) to harvest mechanical energy. The PVC/MXene electrospun film serves as the negative triboelectric material, and aluminum foil is used as a positive triboelectric material. Unlike previous studies that focus on single-component or less synergistic material systems, our approach leverages the synergistic effects of these materials, resulting in improved energy conversion efficiency and multifunctionality. Moreover, the scalable and cost-effective electrospinning process used in this work provides a pathway for practical applications in wearable devices and self-powered systems. The incorporation of MXene into the PVC matrix significantly enhances the triboelectric performance of the TENG, with the PVC/MXene composite achieving a 325% increase in open-circuit voltage (V_OC), a 490% increase in short-circuit current (I_SC), and a 225% increase in transfer charge (Q_SC) compared to pure PVC. These improvements are attributed to MXene’s high conductivity, large surface area, and superior charge trapping capabilities, making the PVC/MXene composite a promising material for high-performance self-powered sensing, wearable electronics, and energy harvesting applications. The PM-TENG achieves optimal energy harvesting performance at a load resistance of ∼10 MΩ, delivering a maximum power output of 4.94 mW and demonstrating superior power density (4.94 mW/cm²) compared to previously reported triboelectric devices. The PM-TENG demonstrates excellent environmental durability, long-term stability, and efficient energy harvesting, with practical applications in powering LEDs and calculators, highlighting its versatility for real-world low-power and intermittent energy needs. The PM-TENG demonstrates multifaceted sensing capabilities, including monitoring physiological signals (swallowing, respiration, and heartbeat) and biomechanical movements (joint motion, finger tapping, walking, and running), making it a versatile candidate for self-powered wearable sensors in health monitoring, sports tracking, and personalized healthcare. Its sensitivity to subtle and dynamic signals, coupled with precise and repeatable voltage outputs, highlights its potential for applications such as gesture recognition, rehabilitation, and activity tracking.

The materials used in this study were procured from reliable suppliers to ensure high quality. MAX phase (Ti₃C₂T_x) with a purity of 99.99% was obtained from Beijing Deke Island Gold Technology Co., Ltd., China. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) powders (density: 0.931 g/cm³), tetrahydrofuran (THF), and propylene carbonate (purity: 99.99%) were sourced from Suzhou Meisu Da New Materials Co., Ltd., China. Hydrofluoric acid (HF, 5% solution) and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO, purity: 99.99%) were supplied by Shandong Shenmao Chemical Co., Ltd., China. Aluminum foil tape was acquired from Gongyi Boyu Aluminum Sales Co., Ltd., China, while Kapton substrates were purchased from Suzhou Dekun Electronic Technology Co., Ltd., China.

Figure 1(a1) shows the HF etching process, where 20 g of Ti₃C₂T_x is immersed in 200 ml of 5% HF solution under an ice-cooled water bath. This step facilitates the selective removal of aluminum layers, yielding multilayered MXene. Figure 1(a2) shows the exfoliation process, where the multilayered MXene obtained from the etching step is dispersed in 200 ml of DMSO. Mild sonication for 5 h is used to separate the layers, resulting in delaminated Ti₃C₂T_x nanosheets with increased accessibility and dispersion. Figure 1(a3) shows the thermal annealing process performed on the delaminated MXene nanosheets. The nanosheets are annealed at 240 °C for 1 h in a vacuum oven to remove residual surface terminations, such as oxygen and fluorine, improving their electrical conductivity for subsequent use in advanced composite materials.

Figure 1(a4) shows the preparation of the PVC/MXene polymer solution. Delaminated Ti₃C₂T_x nanosheets are mixed with PVC in propylene carbonate as the solvent. This mixture undergoes magnetic stirring to achieve a uniform dispersion of the MXene nanosheets within the polymer matrix, forming a homogeneous precursor solution. Figure 1(b) shows the electrospinning setup used to fabricate the PVC/MXene composite film. The prepared polymer solution is loaded into a syringe equipped with a needle. Under a high-voltage electric field, the solution is ejected as fine jets and deposited onto a grounded collector, forming nanofiber networks. Figure 1(c) shows the structural organization of the PVC/MXene composite film formed through the electrospinning process. The delaminated MXene nanosheets are embedded within the PVC nanofibers, resulting in a flexible, highly interconnected fibrous composite material. Figure 1(d) shows the hierarchical structure of the PVC/MXene film at the nanoscale, showcasing the uniform dispersion of Ti₃C₂T_x nanosheets throughout the polymer matrix. This well-integrated structure enhances the composite film’s mechanical strength, dielectric properties, and overall performance, making it suitable for PM-TENG and other energy harvesting applications. The PVC/MXene film and aluminum foil constitute the frictional layers of the PM-TENG, with the aluminum foil simultaneously functioning as the conductive electrode. In addition, a thin Kapton film is employed as the substrate, providing structural support for the PM-TENG.

Figure 1(e) shows the morphological and structural characteristics of the PVC/MXene composite film. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) image in Fig. 1(e1) shows a highly interconnected fibrous network, while Fig. 1(e2) shows a magnified view highlighting the nanoscale dispersion of MXene within the fibers. Figure 1(e3) shows a macroscopic photograph of the fabricated film, demonstrating its uniformity and flexibility. Figure 1(f) shows the structural design of the PM-TENG device. The PVC/MXene composite film serves as one triboelectric layer, while an aluminum foil layer acts as both the opposing triboelectric layer and a conductive electrode. This layered configuration ensures efficient energy harvesting. Figure 1(g) shows the PM-TENG in practical applications. Figure 1(g1) shows the fabricated device in its flat state, while Fig. 1(g2) shows its flexibility under bending conditions, highlighting its potential for integration into wearable and flexible energy harvesting systems. An electrospinning machine (Sibing, SNZJ-1400) was utilized for the fabrication of PVC/MXene composite films, ensuring precise control over the spinning process to achieve uniform nanofiber networks. The V_OC, I_SC, and Q_SC of the PM-TENG were measured using a high-precision electrometer (Keithley 6514) to evaluate its electrical output performance. In addition, a mechanical motor was employed to provide controlled and repeatable actuation forces, enabling the systematic investigation of the PM-TENG device’s triboelectric performance under various conditions.

Figure 1(h) presents the x-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of the PVC/MXene composite film compared to pure PVC. The PVC/MXene film exhibits characteristic diffraction peaks at (004), (008), and (110), corresponding to the crystalline structure of MXene, indicating successful integration of Ti₃C₂T_x nanosheets into the polymer matrix. In contrast, the pure PVC sample shows no distinct peaks, confirming its amorphous nature. Figure 1(i) shows the dielectric constant of PVC/MXene films with varying MXene content (2%, 5%, 8%, and 15% by weight) as a function of frequency. The dielectric constant increases significantly with MXene loading, especially at lower frequencies, due to the high intrinsic dielectric properties of MXene. This enhancement improves the composite’s charge storage capacity, crucial for triboelectric performance. Figure 1(j) shows the AC conductivity of PVC/MXene films as a function of frequency for different MXene loadings. A consistent increase in AC conductivity is observed with a higher MXene content, attributed to the improved electron transport pathways formed by the highly conductive MXene nanosheets. This trend highlights the role of MXene in enhancing the electrical conductivity of the composite, which is critical for efficient energy harvesting in PM-TENG applications.

In Figs. 2(a) and 2(b), the PVC/MXene composite film is characterized. Figure 2(a) shows the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of the surface morphology of the PVC/MXene film, revealing a fibrous network structure that provides an abundant contact area, which is beneficial for enhancing triboelectric properties. The SEM image confirms the uniformity and continuity of the fibrous network, indicating the successful fabrication of the composite material. Figure 2(b) shows the elemental mapping of the PVC/MXene composite, demonstrating the spatial distribution of the major constituent elements. In Fig. 2(b1), a superimposed elemental map is provided, revealing the presence and uniform dispersion of all elements within the film. Figures 2(b2)–2(b5) show individual elemental maps for carbon (C), titanium (Ti), oxygen (O), and fluorine (F), respectively, which further verify the homogeneous dispersion of MXene within the PVC matrix. The uniform dispersion of MXene is crucial for achieving consistent triboelectric performance and optimizing the electrical output of the material.

Figure 2(c) shows the working mechanism of PM-TENG. The working process is divided into a four-stage cycle, starting from the initial contact to the pressing and separation phases. In Fig. 2(c1), the PVC/MXene film is shown in contact with an aluminum electrode, which acts as the counter surface for triboelectric interaction. Upon pressing, as shown in Fig. 2(c2), the two materials come into intimate contact, resulting in charge transfer due to their differing triboelectric affinities. The PVC/MXene film becomes negatively charged, while the aluminum surface becomes positively charged. In Fig. 2(c3), during the separation process, a potential difference is created, driving a flow of electrons through the external load, thus generating electrical output. Figure 2(c4) shows the state after separation, where the charges remain on the surfaces, ready for the next cycle of pressing and releasing. This repetitive process of contact and separation drives the triboelectric effect, which generates a continuous electrical signal that can be harvested and used for sensing or power generation. Figure 2(d) shows the characteristic electrical output signals of the PM-TENG device during the pressing and separating phases. A sharp increase in current is observed during the pressing action, followed by a corresponding peak during separation. This waveform highlights the triboelectric effect of the PVC/MXene material, with each peak indicating an instance of mechanical deformation and subsequent charge generation. The symmetric peaks for pressing and separation events indicate the good responsiveness of the device, reflecting its capability to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy effectively.

In Fig. 2(e), the V_OC generated by the PVC/MXene film is significantly higher than that of pure PVC. The PVC/MXene-based TENG generates an output voltage of around 51 V, compared to 12 V for the pure PVC-based TENG, indicating a substantial enhancement in triboelectric performance due to the incorporation of MXene. This increase in V_OC is ∼325%, highlighting the significant role of MXene in boosting the overall output. The increased surface area and conductivity of MXene enhance the charge separation efficiency, which directly translates into higher V_OC. Figure 2(f) shows I_SC, where a similar trend is observed; the peak I_SC of the PVC/MXene composite reaches ∼12.5 μA, while the pure PVC produces a peak I_SC of around 2.12 μA. This represents a 490% increase in I_SC output, demonstrating the improved electrical conductivity and charge transfer efficiency imparted by the MXene. The MXene, known for its high electrical conductivity, facilitates the movement of charges, which is crucial for generating higher I_SC levels in the TENG device. This enhanced I_SC output can be particularly beneficial in applications requiring a higher power output or when the generated signal needs to be amplified for detection purposes. Figure 2(g) shows Q_SC, which further confirms the enhanced charge storage capacity of the PVC/MXene composite. The Q_SC of the PVC/MXene-based TENG reaches ∼26 nC, compared to around 8 nC for the pure PVC-based TENG. This increase of 225% in Q_SC output indicates a superior ability to store and transfer charges. The presence of MXene in the PVC matrix not only provides a greater effective surface area for charge generation but also enhances the trapping and retention of charges, which leads to higher cumulative Q_SC output. The MXene material plays a crucial role in enhancing the performance of the PM-TENG by improving its electrical properties and charge storage capabilities. At the microscopic level, MXene’s unique 2D layered structure provides a high surface area that facilitates better charge accumulation and transfer during triboelectric interactions. Furthermore, the high electrical conductivity of MXene promotes efficient charge transport within the composite, while its rich surface functional groups, such as –OH, –O, and –F, enhance the interfacial polarization, thereby increasing the dielectric constant of the material. In addition, the flexibility and mechanical robustness of the PVC/MXene composite help maintain consistent contact and separation cycles, ensuring reliable electrical output over extended periods of operation. This makes the PVC/MXene composite a promising material for applications in self-powered sensing, wearable electronics, and energy harvesting systems, where high output performance and durability are essential.

Figures 3(a)–3(c) show the dependence of PM-TENG’s output on the applied force, ranging from 10 to 40 N. In particular, Fig. 3(a) shows that the V_OC output of PM-TENG increases with the applied force, reaching a maximum of ∼8.52 V at 40 N. Similarly, the I_SC, as shown in Fig. 3(b), increases proportionally, achieving a peak value near 12.59 µA at the maximum force. Figure 3(c) shows the corresponding Q_SC output, which also rises consistently with force, reaching about 37.52 nC at 40 N. This behavior indicates that the enhanced contact-separation process at higher forces effectively boosts the triboelectric charge transfer, thus improving the overall energy output of the PM-TENG. Figures 3(d)–3(f) show the effect of excitation frequency on the output performance, varying from 2 to 6 Hz. As shown in Fig. 3(d), the V_OC output maintains stability with frequency, achieving a maximum value of around 76.47 V at 6 Hz. Figure 3(e) reveals an increasing trend in the I_SC output, where the peak current reaches ∼29.79 µA at the highest frequency. Figure 3(f) shows the Q_SC output, keeping a proportional stable in response to increasing frequency, with the Q_SC peaking at about 45.81 nC. These results underscore the role of frequency in enhancing charge generation due to the increased rate of contact-separation cycles, which leads to more efficient charge transfer. Figures 3(g)–3(i) show the impact of PI/MXene film thickness on PM-TENG’s performance, with thicknesses ranging from 20 to 100 µm. Figure 3(g) shows that the V_OC output increases with thickness, achieving a maximum of ∼70.01 V for the 100 µm PI/MXene film. Similarly, Fig. 3(h) shows that the I_SC output improves as the PI/MXene film thickness increases, peaking at about 13.42 µA for the thickest sample. Figure 3(i) shows a corresponding rise in the Q_SC output, reaching around 43.33 nC at 100 µm. This trend is attributed to the thicker dielectric layer, which can store more charges and effectively enhance the triboelectric effect.

Figure 4(a) shows the relationship between the output current and voltage of the PM-TENG (size: 1 × 1 cm²) as a function of external load resistance, ranging from 0.1 to 1000 MΩ. The output current decreases with increasing resistance, while the output voltage increases, indicating the typical behavior of a triboelectric nanogenerator. The intersection of the current and voltage curves suggests an optimal load resistance for maximum power output. Figure 4(b) shows the power output as a function of load resistance, with the PM-TENG achieving a maximum output power of 4.94 mW at an optimal resistance of ∼10 MΩ. This demonstrates the importance of matching the load resistance to the generator’s internal characteristics for optimal energy harvesting performance. Figure 5(c) shows a comparative analysis of the power density achieved in this work (4.94 mW/cm²) against previously reported studies.^38–43 The results highlight the superior performance of the PM-TENG, demonstrating its significant advancement over existing triboelectric energy harvesting devices. Figure 4(d) evaluates the long-term stability of the PM-TENG, with the voltage output recorded over 1500 seconds under continuous operation. The stable voltage output indicates excellent mechanical and electrical durability, demonstrating the reliability of the PM-TENG for extended usage without performance degradation. Figure 4(e) shows a zoomed-in view of the voltage output under periodic external excitation, illustrating a consistent and repeatable output waveform that underscores the robustness of the device’s triboelectric properties. Figure 4(f) examines the effect of different liquid environments, including water, NaCl solution, and Na₂CO₃ solution, on the voltage output of the PM-TENG. The results indicate negligible changes in performance, confirming the environmental durability and resistance of the device to adverse conditions. Figure 4(g) shows the long-term durability of the PM-TENG by measuring the current output after different storage durations (initial, one week, and two weeks). The nearly identical outputs confirm the stable performance of the device over time, even under varied environmental conditions. Figure 4(h) shows the charging performance of the PM-TENG by plotting the voltage across a capacitor as a function of time under different frequencies (4 and 6 Hz). The higher charging rate observed at 6 Hz indicates improved energy harvesting efficiency at elevated frequencies, highlighting the PM-TENG’s capability to adapt to dynamic operational scenarios. Figure 4(i) showcases the practical application of the PM-TENG for powering LEDs through a bridge rectifier circuit. The green LEDs illuminate brightly, demonstrating the PM-TENG’s ability to efficiently convert mechanical energy into usable electrical energy for low-power electronics. Figure 4(j) shows another practical demonstration, where the PM-TENG powers an electronic calculator to perform a basic arithmetic calculation (3 × 5 = 15). This highlights the feasibility of the PM-TENG for real-world applications requiring intermittent or low-power energy sources.

Figures 5(a)–5(c) show the effect of separation gap distances on the output performance of the PM-TENG, with gaps ranging from 2 to 15 mm. In Fig. 5(a), the V_OC output increases significantly with the separation gap, reaching a maximum value of ∼82.71 V at 15 mm. This trend is due to the enhanced charge generation resulting from greater separation distances, which increase the effective surface area for charge transfer. Figure 5(b) shows the corresponding I_SC output, which also rises with the separation gap, peaking at ∼15.73 µA. Similarly, Fig. 5(c) shows the Q_SC output, which exhibits a consistent increase, reaching around 57.28 nC at the maximum gap distance. These results highlight the critical role of the separation gap in modulating the triboelectric output by influencing the effective contact and separation dynamics. Figures 5(d)–5(f) show the effect of varying humidity levels, ranging from 20% to 60%, on the PM-TENG’s performance. In Fig. 5(d), the V_OC output decreases gradually with increasing humidity, dropping from ∼84.39 V at 20% humidity to around 43.91 V at 60% humidity. This decline is attributed to the increased surface conductivity caused by higher humidity, which facilitates charge leakage and reduces the triboelectric effect. Figure 5(e) shows a similar decreasing trend in I_SC output, with the current dropping from about 12.41 to 5.36 µA as humidity increases. Figure 5(f) shows the Q_SC output, which follows a comparable pattern, decreasing from ∼51.67 to 23.86 nC. These observations indicate that higher humidity negatively impacts the performance of the PM-TENG due to reduced charge retention and effective charge transfer. Figures 5(g)–5(i) investigate the impact of ambient temperature, ranging from 30 to 70 °C, on the output performance of the PM-TENG. Figure 5(g) shows that the V_OC output increases with temperature, rising from ∼70 V at 30 °C to a maximum of around 104.99 V at 70 °C. This improvement is likely due to enhanced material elasticity and surface interactions at higher temperatures, which facilitate better contact-separation cycles. Figure 5(h) shows a similar trend in I_SC output, with the peak current increasing from about 5.87 to 12.85 µA as the temperature rises. Figure 5(i) shows the Q_SC output, which also increases consistently, peaking at ∼50.55 nC at the highest temperature. These findings suggest that elevated temperatures improve the triboelectric performance by enhancing material properties and charge transfer efficiency.

Figure 6(a) shows an illustrative summary of PM-TENG’s multifaceted sensing capabilities, encompassing swallowing, breathing, heartbeat, finger movements, joint motions, and full-body activities. This versatility positions the PM-TENG as a promising candidate for self-powered wearable sensors with broad applications in health monitoring, sports performance tracking, and personalized healthcare. The PM-TENG exhibits sensitivity to subtle physiological signals, such as swallowing, respiration, and heartbeats. Figure 6(b) shows the voltage output during swallowing, where distinct peaks correspond to individual swallowing actions. This demonstrates PM-TENG’s ability to detect and distinguish slight neck muscle movements. In Fig. 6(c), the PM-TENG is attached to a face mask for respiratory monitoring, producing periodic voltage signals that reflect the user’s breathing patterns. The inset further details the fine structure of a single respiratory cycle, showing the potential for real-time respiratory tracking. Figure 6(d) shows heartbeat monitoring before and after exercise, with significantly amplified signals post-exercise due to increased cardiac activity. This application highlights the PM-TENG’s adaptability to dynamic physiological conditions, making it suitable for fitness and health monitoring. Figures 6(e) and 6(g) show PM-TENG’s capability to monitor joint motion at the elbow and knee, respectively. In Fig. 6(e), the device captures the voltage output corresponding to elbow flexion at different angles (30°, 45°, and 60°), with higher voltage amplitudes correlating to larger bending angles. Similarly, Fig. 6(g) shows the voltage output for knee bending at 30°, 60°, and 90°, where the signal magnitude increases with the bending angle, reflecting the device’s ability to quantify joint movements accurately. These results suggest that the PM-TENG can serve as a precise joint motion sensor for rehabilitation or activity monitoring. Figure 6(f) shows the detection of fine finger tapping motions. The PM-TENG generates clear and repeatable voltage signals for each tap, indicating its sensitivity to small and rapid mechanical stimuli. Figure 6(h) further shows its ability to distinguish between slow and fast pressing motions, with faster motions resulting in higher voltage amplitudes. This versatility in detecting both small and rapid actions underscores PM-TENG’s potential for use in gesture recognition and human–machine interface applications. Figure 6(i) explores PM-TENG’s application in monitoring full-body movements, such as walking and running. The device generates distinct voltage patterns for each activity, with running producing higher amplitude signals due to the greater force and frequency of motion. This capability makes the PM-TENG suitable for activity tracking and gait analysis in sports or rehabilitation settings.

In summary, we developed a PM-TENG for efficient mechanical energy harvesting. By integrating MXene into the PVC matrix as the negative triboelectric material, paired with aluminum foil as the positive material, the PM-TENG achieved remarkable enhancements in triboelectric performance, including a 325% increase in V_OC, a 490% increase in I_SC, and a 225% increase in Q_SC compared to pure PVC. These improvements are attributed to MXene’s exceptional conductivity, large surface area, and effective charge trapping capabilities, establishing the PVC/MXene composite as a promising material for high-performance energy harvesting and self-powered sensing. The PM-TENG demonstrated optimal energy output with a maximum power density of 4.94 mW/cm² at a load resistance of 10 MΩ, surpassing those previously reported triboelectric devices. Its excellent environmental durability, long-term stability, and multifunctional sensing capabilities—ranging from monitoring physiological signals such as swallowing, respiration, and heartbeat to detecting bio-mechanical movements such as joint motion and walking—highlight its versatility. The PM-TENG’s sensitivity to dynamic and subtle signals, coupled with precise and repeatable output, underscores its potential for real-world applications in wearable electronics, health monitoring, gesture recognition, rehabilitation, and activity tracking, offering a sustainable solution for energy harvesting and advanced sensing technologies. Looking ahead, the unique properties of the PM-TENG, such as its flexibility, lightweight design, and high sensitivity, open up exciting opportunities for broader applications. For instance, it could be integrated into flexible electronic skins for continuous health monitoring, including vital signs and physical activity tracking. In the field of sports, the PM-TENG holds potential as an advanced sensor for real-time performance analysis, injury prevention, and athlete training optimization.

The authors have no conflicts to disclose.

Lina Liu: Conceptualization (lead); Data curation (lead); Formal analysis (lead); Funding acquisition (lead); Investigation (lead); Methodology (lead); Project administration (lead); Resources (lead); Software (lead); Supervision (lead); Validation (lead); Visualization (lead); Writing – original draft (lead); Writing – review & editing (lead). Weiqiu Zhu: Conceptualization (equal); Data curation (equal); Formal analysis (equal); Funding acquisition (equal); Investigation (equal); Methodology (equal); Project administration (equal); Resources (equal); Software (equal); Supervision (equal); Validation (equal); Visualization (equal); Writing – original draft (equal); Writing – review & editing (equal). Haotian Ma: Conceptualization (equal); Data curation (equal); Formal analysis (equal); Funding acquisition (equal); Investigation (equal); Methodology (equal); Project administration (equal); Resources (equal); Software (equal); Supervision (equal); Validation (equal); Visualization (equal); Writing – original draft (equal); Writing – review & editing (equal). Junyu Zhou: Conceptualization (equal); Data curation (equal); Formal analysis (equal); Funding acquisition (equal); Investigation (equal); Methodology (equal); Project administration (equal); Resources (equal); Software (equal); Supervision (equal); Validation (equal); Visualization (equal); Writing – original draft (equal); Writing – review & editing (equal).

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.