Cervical cancer continues to pose a substantial public health burden, ranking as the fourth most frequent cause of female cancer deaths worldwide. Developing countries bear a disproportionate burden, accounting for roughly 80% of cases. Human Papillomavirus (HPV) is the major culprit, emphasizing the importance of preventive measures and early detection. While Pap smears are a cornerstone of screening, manual analysis has limitations. Subjectivity, time constraints, and potential human error can lead to missed diagnoses and delayed treatment. This paper proposes a novel computer-aided diagnosis (CAD) system to address these shortcomings. This research proposes an automated system for directly classifying cervical cancer cells within Pap smear images, leveraging machine learning and computer vision. This tool has the potential to significantly enhance the accuracy, consistency, and efficiency of cervical cancer screening programs. Earlier detection of precancerous lesions could lead to timely intervention and ultimately reduce cervical cancer mortality rates. Additionally, automating Pap smear analysis could free up valuable time for pathologists. This allows them to focus their expertise on more complex cases and potentially streamline overall workflow efficiency within healthcare systems.
REFERENCES
1.
R.L.
Siegel
, K.D.
Miller
and A.
Jemal
, “Cancer statistics
”, CA Cancer J Clin.
, 69
(1
), pp. 7
–34
, (2019
).2.
F.
Ghasemi
, M.
Shafee
, Z.
Banikazemi
, M.H.
Pourhanifeh
, H.
Khanbabaei
, A.
Shamshirian
, S. Amiri
Moghadam
, R.
ArefNezhad
, A.
Sahebkar
and A.
Avan
, “ Curcumin inhibits NF-kB and Wnt/beta-catenin pathways in cervical cancer cells
”, Pathol Res Pract.
, 215
(10
), p. 152556
, (2019
).3.
J. Sadri
Nahand
, M.
Moghoofei
, A.
Salmaninejad
, Z.
Bahmanpour
, M.
Karimzadeh
, M.
Nasiri
, H.R.
Mirzaei
, M.H.
Pourhanifeh
, F.
Bokharaei-Salim
and H.
Mirzaei
, “Pathogenic role of exosomes and microRNAs in HPV-mediated infammation and cervical cancer: a review
”, Int J Cancer,
146
(2
), pp. 305
–20
, (2020
).4.
L.A.
Torre
, F.
Bray
, R.L.
Siegel
, J.
Ferlay
, J.
Lortet-Tieulent
and A.
Jemal
, “Global cancer statistics
”, CA Cancer J Clin.
, 65
(2
), pp. 87
–108
, (2012
).5.
A.
Goodman
, “HPV testing as a screen for cervical cancer
”, BMJ
, 350
, p. h2372
, (2015
).6.
R.
Shafabakhsh
, R.J.
Reiter
, H.
Mirzaei
, S.N.
Teymoordash
and Z.
Asemi
, “Melatonin: a new inhibitor agent for cervical cancer treatment
”, J Cell Physiol.
, 234
(12
), pp. 21670
–82
(2019
).
[PubMed]
J.S.
Nahand
, S. Taghizadeh-
Boroujeni
, M.
Karimzadeh
, S.
Borran
, M.H.
Pourhanifeh
, M.
Moghoofei
, F.
Bokharaei-Salim
, S.
Karampoor
, A.
Jafari
, Z.
Asemi
, et al., “MicroRNAs: New prognostic, diagnostic, and therapeutic biomarkers in cervical cancer
”, J Cell Physiol.
, 234
(10
), pp. 17064
–99
, (2019
).
[PubMed]
7.
L.
Chen
, Y.
Song
, G.
Ruan
, Q.
Zhang
, F.
Lin
, J.
Zhang
, T.
Wu
, J.
An
, B.
Dong
and P.
Sun
, “Knowledge and attitudes regarding HPV and vaccination among Chinese women aged 20 to 35 years in Fujian Province: a cross-sectional study
”, Cancer Control
, 25
(1
), pp. 1073274818775356
(2018
).8.
P.
Sasieni
and J.
Adams
, “Effect of screening on cervical cancer mortality in England and Wales: analysis of trends with an age period cohort model
”, BMJ,
318
(7193
), pp. 1244
–5
, (1999
).9.
A.
Herbert
, K.
Stein
, T.N.
Bryant
, C.
Breen
and P.
Old
, “Relation between the incidence of invasive cervical cancer and the screening interval: is a five year interval too long?
”, Journal of Medical Screening
, 3
(3
), p. 140
, (1996
).10.
R.
Landy
, F.
Pesola
, A.
Castanon
and P.
Sasieni
, “Impact of cervical screening on cervical cancer mortality: estimation using stage-specific results from a nested case-control study
”, Br J Cancer
, 115
(9
), pp. 1140
–6
, (2016
).11.
D.
Saslow
, D.
Solomon
, H.W.
Lawson
, M.
Killackey
, S.L.
Kulasingam
, J.
Cain
, F.A.
Garcia
, A.T.
Moriarty
, A.G.
Waxman
and D.C.
Wilbur
, et al., “American Cancer Society, American Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology, and American Society for Clinical Pathology screening guidelines for the prevention and early detection of cervical cancer
”, CA Cancer J Clin.
, 62
(3
), pp. 147
–72
, (2012
).12.
U.S.P.S.T.
Force
, S.J.
Curry
, A.H.
Krist
, D.K.
Owens
, M.J.
Barry
, A.B.
Caughey
, K.W.
Davidson
, C.A.
Doubeni
, J.W.
Epling
Jr. and A.R.
Kemper
, et al., “Screening for cervical cancer: US preventive services task force recommendation statement
”, JAMA,
320
(7
), pp. 674
–86
, (2018
).13.
M.
Schifman
, W.K.
Kinney
, L.C.
Cheung
, J.C.
Gage
, B.
Fetterman
, N.E.
Poitras
, T.S.
Lorey
, N.
Wentzensen
, B.
Befano
and J.
Schussler
, et al., “Relative performance of HPV and cytology components of cotesting in cervical screening
”, J Natl Cancer Inst.
, 110
(5
), pp. 501
–8
, (2018
).14.
M.O.
Costa
, S.A.
Heraclio
, A.V.
Coelho
, V.L.
Acioly
, P.R.
Souza
and M.T.
Correia
, “Comparison of conventional Papanicolaou cytology samples with liquidbased cervical cytology samples from women in Pernambuco
”, Brazil. Braz J Med Biol Res.
, 48
(9
), pp. 831
–8
, (2015
).15.
S.
Pankaj
, S.
Nazneen
, S.
Kumari
, A.
Kumari
, A.
Kumari
, J.
Kumari
, V.
Choudhary
and S.
Kumar
, “Comparison of conventional Pap smear and liquid-based cytology: a study of cervical cancer screening at a tertiary care center in Bihar
”, Indian J Cancer,
55
(1
), pp. 80
–3
, (2018
).16.
H.
Jeong
, S.R.
Hong
, S.W.
Chae
, S.Y.
Jin
, H.K.
Yoon
, J.
Lee
, E.K.
Kim
, S.T.
Ha
, S.N.
Kim
and E.J.
Park
, et al. “Comparison of unsatisfactory samples from conventional smear versus liquid-based cytology in uterine cervical cancer screening test
”, J Pathol Transl Med.
, 51
(3
), pp. 314
–9
(2017
).17.
National Health Commission of the Peoples Republic of China
. Chinese guidelines for diagnosis and treatment of cervical cancer, (English version
), Chin J Cancer Res.
, 31
(2
), pp. 295
–305
(2019
).18.
D.D.
Davey
, R.J.
Souers
, K.
Goodrich
, D.R.
Mody
, S.O.
Tabbara
, C.N.
Booth
and Bethesda
, “Implementation and human papillomavirus primary screening: practices of laboratories participating in the College of American Pathologists PAP education program
”, Arch Pathol Lab Med.
, 143
(10
), pp. 1196
–202
(2019
).19.
O.F.
Ahmad
, A.S.
Soares
, E.
Mazomenos
, P.
Brandao
, R.
Vega
, E.
Seward
, D.
Stoyanov
, M.
Chand
and L.B.
Lovat
, “Artificial intelligence and computer-aided diagnosis in colonoscopy: current evidence and future directions
”, The Lancet Gastroenterology Hepatology
, 4
(1
), pp. 71
–80
(2019
).20.
A.
Hosny
, C.
Parmar
, J.
Quackenbush
, L.H.
Schwartz
and H.
Aerts
, “Artificial intelligence in radiology
”, Nat Rev Cancer
, 18
(8
), pp. 500
–10
(2018
).21.
A.
Hekler
, J.S.
Utikal
, A.H.
Enk
, C.
Berking
, J.
Klode
, D.
Schadendorf
, P.
Jansen
, C.
Franklin
, T. Holland-
Letz
and D.
Krahl
, et al., “Pathologist-level classification of Histopathological melanoma images with deep neural networks
”, Eur J Cancer
, 115
, pp. 79
–83
(2019
).22.
A.A.
Renshaw
and T.M.
Elsheikh
, “Sensitivity and workload for manual and automated gynecologic screening:best current estimates
”, Diagn Cytopathol.
, 39
(9
), pp. 647
–50
(2011
).23.
J.
Di
, S.
Rutherford
and C.
Chu
, “Review of the cervical cancer burden and population-based cervical cancer screening in China
”, Asian Pac J Cancer Prev.
, 16
(17
), pp. 7401
–7
, (2015
).
This content is only available via PDF.
© 2025 Author(s). Published under an exclusive license by AIP Publishing.
2025
Author(s)
You do not currently have access to this content.
