Many readers of this journal are probably familiar with calls from governmental, business, and educational authorities to expand and improve the preparation of science teachers, with a particular focus on the shortage of highly qualified physics teachers. It may seem as if this problem has been around forever, and in fact similar expressions of alarm have been heard for well over a century. Why, then, does this shortage persist? Has the physics community been negligent in offering possible solutions? In fact, the opposite is true: physics educators long ago arrived at a consensus and pointed to a way forward, with a consistent set of recommendations. By tracing the history and elucidating those recommendations, we hope to help motivate physics educators to promote these goals more clearly, and with greater specificity and urgency.

1.
A valuable overview of physics teacher education in the U.S. is provided by
Amanda M.
Gunning
and
Keith
Sheppard
, “The roots of physics teaching: The early history of physics teacher education in the United States,” in
Recruiting and Educating Future Physics Teachers: Case Studies and Effective Practices,
edited by
Cody
Sandifer
and
Eric
Brewe
(
American Physical Society
,
College Park, MD
,
2015
), pp.
27
34
, as well as the entirety of the cited volume edited by Sandifer and Brewe.
Also see
David E.
Meltzer
and
Valerie K.
Otero
, “
Transforming the preparation of physics teachers
,”
Am. J. Phys.
82
,
633
637
(
July
2014
).
A discussion focused on teaching methods recommended by the physics community can be found in
Valerie K.
Otero
and
David E.
Meltzer
, “
100 years of attempts to transform physics education
,”
Phys. Teach.
54
,
523
527
(
Dec.
2016
),
while a broader discussion of physics education history is in
David E.
Meltzer
and
Valerie K.
Otero
, “
A brief history of physics education in the United States
,”
Am. J. Phys.
83
,
447
458
(
May
2015
).
2.
Charles K.
Wead
,
Aims and Methods of the Teaching of Physics [Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education, No. 7—1884]
(
Government Printing Office
,
Washington, DC
,
1884
), p.
117
.
3.
National Educational Association
,
Report of the Committee on Secondary School Studies: Appointed at the Meeting of the National Educational Association July 9, 1892: with the Reports of the Conferences Arranged by this Committee and held December 28–30, 1892
(
Government Printing Office
,
Washington, DC
,
1893
), pp.
25
27
and 117–127.
4.
National Education Association
,
Reorganization of Science in Secondary Schools: A Report of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, Appointed by the National Education Association
(
Department of the Interior
,
Washington, DC
,
1920
), pp.
49
60
and 61–62.
C. R.
Mann
,
C. H.
Smith
, and
C. F.
Adams
, “A new movement among physics teachers, Circular II,”
Sch. Rev
.
14
,
429
437
(
1906
);
C. Riborg
Mann
,
The Teaching of Physics for Purposes of General Education
(
Macmillan
,
New York
,
1912
). Also see the articles cited in Ref. 1 for extended discussions.
5.
G. M.
Whipple
(Ed.),
The Thirty-First Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I: A Program for Teaching Science
(
Public School Publishing Company
,
Bloomington, IL
,
1932
), pp.
80
81
and 325–344.
6.
David E.
Meltzer
,
Monica
Plisch
, and
Stamatis
Vokos
(Eds.),
Transforming the Preparation of Physics Teachers: A Call to Action. A Report by the Task Force on Teacher Education in Physics (T-TEP)
(
American Physical Society
,
College Park, MD
,
2012
).
7.
Ref. 2, p. 125.
8.
E. H.
Hall
, “
The relations of colleges to secondary schools in respect to physics
,”
Science
30
,
577
586
(
1909
).
9.
Ref. 6, pp. 80–81.
10.
AAAS Cooperative Committee on the Teaching of Science and Mathematics
, “
Preparation of High School Science Teachers
,”
Science
131
,
1024
1029
(
1960
).
11.
Commission on College Physics
,
Preparing High School Physics Teachers [Report of the Panel on the Preparation of Physics Teachers of the Commission on College Physics, Ben A. Green Jr., et al.] [ERIC Document ED029775]
(
University of Maryland
,
College Park, MD
,
1968
), p.
9
;
Commission on College Physics
,
Preparing High School Physics Teachers II
, revised ed. (
University of Maryland
,
College Park, MD
,
1972
), p.
20
.
12.
American Association of Physics Teachers
,
The Role, Education, and Qualifications of the High School Physics Teacher
(
AAPT
,
College Park, MD
,
1988
), p.
5
.
13.
American Association of Physics Teachers
,
The Role, Education, Qualifications, and Professional Development of Secondary School Physics Teachers
(
AAPT
,
College Park, MD
,
2009
), p.
16
.
14.
J. M.
Hughes
, “
A study of intelligence and of the training of teachers as factors conditioning the achievement of pupils. I
,”
Sch. Rev.
33
,
191
200
(
1925
);
A study of intelligence and of the training of teachers as factors conditioning the achievement of pupils. II
,”
Sch. Rev.
33
,
292
302
(
1925
).
15.
Ref. 2, p. 117 and p. 122.
16.
Edwin H.
Hall
, “The teaching of physics in the secondary school,” in
The Teaching of Chemistry and Physics in the Secondary School
, edited by
Alexander
Smith
and
Edwin H.
Hall
(
Longmans
,
Green, New York
,
1902
), p.
278
.
17.
G. R.
Twiss
, “
The reorganization of high school science
,”
Sch. Sci. Math.
20
,
1
13
(
1920
).
18.
Victor H.
Noll
et al, “The course in physics,” in
The Forty-Sixth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I: Science Education in American Schools
, edited by
N. B.
Henry
(
University of Chicago Press
,
Chicago, 1947
), pp.
208
221
.
19.
Commission on College Physics
,
Preparing High School Physics Teachers
(
1968
), p.
12
.
20.
Arnold A.
Strassenburg
, “
A discovery approach to introductory physics
,” in
Preparing High School Physics Teachers
(
1968
), pp.
20
21
.
Physics Survey Committee, National Research Council
,
Physics in Perspective, Volume II, Part B, The Interfaces
(
National Academy of Sciences
,
Washington, DC
,
1973
), pp.
1145
1146
.
21.
Ref. 14, pp. 16–19, and references therein.
22.
David E.
Meltzer
, “
Resources for the Education of Physics Teachers
,” in Ref. 7, pp. 97–104. (References and Reports on the Education and Practices of Physics Teachers).
23.
Ref. 2, p. 125.
24.
Joint Commission on the Education of Teachers of Science and Mathematics
,
Improving Science and Mathematics Programs in American Schools
(
American Association for the Advancement of Science and American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education
,
Washington, DC
,
1960
), p.
25
.
25.
Commission on College Physics
,
Preparing High School Physics Teachers II
(
1972
), p.
15
.
26.
Ref. 22, p. 1146.
27.
Ref. 7, p. 25.
28.
David E.
Meltzer
, “Research on the education of physics teachers,” in
Teacher Education in Physics: Research, Curriculum, and Practice
, edited by
David E.
Meltzer
and
Peter S.
Shaffer
(
American Physical Society
,
College Park, MD
,
2011
), pp.
3
14
.
29.
See, for example,
James Henry
Inman
,
The Training of Iowa High School Teachers in Relation to the Subjects They Teach
(
University of Iowa
,
Iowa City
,
1928
);
30.
Clare Liggett
Shellenberger
,
Training of Kansas High School Science Teachers,
master’s dissertation (
Kansas State College
,
Manhattan, KS
,
1937
); and
31.
M. H.
Trytten
and
James M.
Leach
, “
A study of secondary school physics in Pennsylvania
,”
Am. J. Phys.
9
,
96
101
(
Feb.
1941
). The results of other contemporaneous studies were consistent with these three reports.
32.
National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification and American Association for the Advancement of Science
,
Secondary School Science and Mathematics Teachers: Characteristics and Service Loads (NSF-63-10)
(
National Science Foundation
,
Washington, DC
,
1963
), p.
40
.
33.
Susan
White
and
John
Tyler
,
Who Teaches High School Physics? Results from the 2012-2013 Nationwide Survey of High School Physics Teachers
(
American Institute of Physics
,
College Park, MD
,
2014
), p.
3
.
34.
Ref. 7, pp. 13–21.
35.
For a mid-century study of certification requirements, see for example
David S.
Sarner
and
Jack R.
Frymier
, “
Certification requirements in mathematics and science
,”
Sch. Sci. Math.
59
,
456
460
(
1959
). For a broader overview, see Gunning and Sheppard, Ref. 1.
36.
For example,
P. W.
Hutson
, “
High school science teachers: A study of their training in relation to the subjects they are teaching
,”
Educ. Adm. Supervision
9
,
423
438
(
1923
).
37.
Ref. 32, p. 6.
38.
Ref. 33, p. 2.
39.
Alice Maria
Van de Voort
,
The Teaching of Science in Normal Schools and Teachers Colleges
(
Teachers College
,
New York
,
1927
).
40.
Teachers College Announcement 1900-1901
(
Columbia University
,
New York
,
1900
), pp.
102
110
;
Teachers College Announcement 1910-1911
(
Columbia University
,
New York
,
1910
), pp.
155
159
. Also see Gunning and Sheppard, Ref. 1, for a detailed discussion of the Teachers College program.
41.
Ref. 7, pp. 18–19.
42.
Frank Wigglesworth
Clarke
,
A Report on the Teaching of Chemistry and Physics in the United States (Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education, No. 6–1880)
(
Washington [DC]
:
Government Printing Office
,
1881
), p.
11
;
K.
Lark-Horovitz
et al, “
Responsibilities of science departments in the preparation of teachers: A report of the Committee on the Teaching of Physics in Secondary Schools
,”
Am. J. Phys.
14
,
114
115
(
1946
);
Physics Survey Committee
,
Physics: Survey and Outlook [A report on the present state of U.S. physics and its requirements for future growth]
(
Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences
,
National Research Council
,
1966
), p.
30
.
43.
Commission on College Physics
,
Preparing High School Physics Teachers
(
1968
), p.
5
.
44.
David E.
Newton
and
Fletcher G.
Watson
,
The Research on Science Education Survey: The Status of Teacher Education Programs in the Sciences, 1965–1967
(
Harvard Graduate School of Education
,
Cambridge, MA
,
1968
), p.
26
(Fig. 1).
45.
Ref. 7, p. 14.
46.
For example, see
Stephanie V.
Chasteen
,
Rachel E.
Scherr
, and
Monica
Plisch
,
A Study of Thriving Physics Teacher Education Programs
(
American Physical Society
,
College Park, MD
,
2018
).
47.
Ref. 7, pp. 16–17.
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