A multi-functional teaching apparatus has been developed for α and β spectroscopy utilizing a solid-state detector and associated electronics. The possible experiments include conventional measurements to determine α and β decay energies, half lives, characteristic energy loss of nuclear particles in matter, and limits on the β-neutrino mass set from endpoints in β-decay spectra. In addition, the relativistic mass increase of β particles is verified using a high-efficiency, axially symmetric permanent ring-magnet β spectrometer. The basic apparatus also can be adapted for experiments in Rutherford scattering and other nuclear measurements.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
E.
Fermi
, “Versuch einer theorie der β-strahlen. I
,” Z. Phys.
88
, 161
–177
(1934
) [English translation: Fred L. Wilson, “Fermi's theory of beta decay,” Am. J. Phys. 36, 1150–1160 (1968)].5.
Lars
Bergstrom
, “Non-baryonic dark matter: Observational evidence and detection methods
,” Rep. Prog. Phys.
63
, 793
–841
(2000
).6.
Experiments in Nuclear Science, AN34
(Ortec, Inc.
, Oak Ridge, TN
).7.
Jerome L.
Duggan
, Laboratory Investigations in Nuclear Science
(The Nucleus
, Oak Ridge, TN
, 1988
).8.
Nicholas
Tsoulfanidis
and Sheldon
Landsberger
, Measurement and Detection of Radiation
, 3rd ed. (CRC Press
, Boca Raton, FL
, 2011
).9.
Glenn F.
Knoll
, Radiation Detection and Measurement
, 4th ed. (John Wiley
, N.Y.
, 2011
).10.
See supplementary material at http://dx.doi.org/10.1119/1.4964109 for more details on the electronics, vacuum system and additional experiments possible.
11.
Spectrum Techniques LLC, Oak Ridge, TN 37830.
12.
Isotope Products Laboratories, Valencia, CA 91355-3427.
13.
Table of Isotopes
, 8th ed., edited by Richard B.
Firestone
and Virginia S.
Shirley
(Wiley
, New York
, 1996
).14.
Ortec, Inc., Oak Ridge, TN 37831, Model CA-016-025-1500 series A with C Mount (1500 μm minimum depletion depth).
15.
F. D.
Becchetti
, C. E.
Thorn
, and M. J.
Levine
, “Response of plastic scintillator detectors to heavy ions, Z < 35, E < 170 MeV
,” Nucl. Instrum. Methods
138
, 93
–104
(1976
).16.
Harbor Freight Tools Item 66466, U.S. General 3 CFM 2-stage, direct-drive vacuum pump (or similar).
17.
K. J.
Lesker
, Jefferson Hills, PA 15025.18.
Wick C.
Haxton
and Barry R.
Holstein
, “Neutrino physics
,” Am. J. Phys.
68
, 15
–32
(2000
).19.
W.
Hillebrandt
and J. C.
Niemeyer
, “Type IA supernova explosion models
,” Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys.
38
, 191
–230
(2000
).20.
Astrophysics, Clocks and Fundamental Constants
, edited by S. G.
Karshenboim
and E.
Peik
(Springer
, Berlin
, 2004
).21.
Eric B.
Norman
, Stuart B.
Gazes
, Stephanie G.
Crane
, and Dianne A.
Bennett
, “Tests of the exponential decay law at short and long times
,” Phys. Rev. Lett.
60
, 2246
–2249
(1988
).22.
R.
Nave
, HyperPhysics, Gorgia State University <http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hphys.html> (also see relevant Wikipedia entries).23.
Kenneth N.
Geller
and Richard
Kollarits
, “Experiment to measure the increase in electron mass with velocity
,” Am. J. Phys.
40
, 1125
–1130
(1972
).24.
T. S.
Mudhole
and N.
Umakantha
, “A sector-type beta-ray spectrometer: A laboratory experiment
,” Am. J. Phys.
41
, 242
–246
(1973
).25.
Jack G.
Couch
and Terry K.
Dorries
, “Measuring relativistic electrons in the undergraduate laboratory
,” Am. J. Phys.
50
, 917
–921
(1982
).26.
John W.
Luetzelschwab
, “Apparatus to measure relativistic mass increase
,” Am. J. Phys.
71
, 878
–884
(2003
).27.
Professor D.
Marlow
, “Physics 312: Beta decay
,” (private communication, 2013) Physics Department, Princeton University.28.
Focusing of Charged Particles
, edited by Albert
Septier
(Academic Press
, N.Y.
, 1967
), Vol. I, Chap. 2.3.29.
R.
Stern
et al., “Tests of a large air-core superconducting-solenoid reaction product spectrometer
,” Rev. Sci. Instrum.
58
, 1682
–1693
(1987
).30.
Vinit
Kumara
, “Understanding the focusing of charged particle beams in a solenoid magnetic field
,” Am. J. Phys.
77
, 737
–741
(2009
).31.
W. Z.
Liu
, R.
Stern
, and F. D.
Becchetti
, “Focusing of multiply-charged energetic ions using solenoidal B and radial E fields
,” Rev. Sci. Instrum.
58
, 220
–222
(1987
).32.
Chun
Li
, Michael
Devine
, and Gareth
Hatch
, “Design considerations of ring-type magnets
,” IEEE Trans. Magn.
44
, 4281
–4284
(2008
);see also
Jerry P.
Selvaggi
et al., IEEE Trans. Magn.
46
, 3715
–3723
(2010
).33.
R.
Ravaud
, G.
Lemarquand
, V.
Lemarquand
, and C.
Depollier
, “Analytical calculation of the magnetic field created by permanent-magnet rings
,” IEEE Trans. Magn.
44
, 1982
–1989
(2008
).34.
J.
Allison
et al., “Geant4 developments and applications
,” IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci.
53
, 270
–278
(2006
).35.
Kai
Siegbahn
and Peter
Axel
, Alpha-, Beta-, and Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy
(North Holland
, Amsterdam
, 1966
), Vols. I and II, Chaps. II and XXIV; also Am. J. Phys. 34, 275–276 (1966).36.
D. G.
Sarantites
and L. G.
Sobotka
, “Computational templates for introductory nuclear science using Mathcad
,” Am. J. Phys.
81
, 44
–49
(2013
).37.
P.
Venkataramaiah
, K.
Gopala
, A.
Basavaraju
, S. S.
Suryanarayana
, and H.
Sanjeeviah
, “A simple relation for the Fermi function
,” J. Phys. G: Nucl. Phys.
11
, 359
–364
(1985
).38.
Gafchromic EBT Light-insensitive Dosimetry Film, ISP International, Wayne, NJ 07470.
39.
Robert L.
Fleischer
, P.
Buford Price
, and Robert M.
Walker
, Nuclear Tracks in Solids
(University of California Press
, Berkeley, CA
, 1975
).40.
V. E.
Pilcher
, C. C.
Jones
, and G. R.
Ellmers
, “Particle tracks in cellulose nitrate
,” Am. J. Phys.
40
, 679
–683
(1972
).41.
Robert G.
Marcley
, “Apparatus drawings project. Report Number 16. Apparatus for measuring the Rutherford scattering of alpha particles by thin metal foils
,” Am. J. Phys.
29
, 349
–354
(1961
).42.
James A.
Earl
, “Modified version of the MIT Rutherford scattering apparatus for use in advanced undergraduate laboratories
,” Am. J. Phys.
34
, 483
–488
(1966
).43.
E. J.
Burge
, V. R. W.
Edwards
, V. E.
Lewis
, and N. K.
Ganguly
, “Optimum design of student experiments on Rutherford scattering
,” Am. J. Phys.
36
, 351
–488
(1968
).44.
S. A.
Dodds
and G. S.
Mutchler
, “A novel geometry for Rutherford scattering
,” Am. J. Phys.
64
, 1295
–1298
(1996
).45.
F. D.
Becchetti
and J. S.
Ying
, “Student experiments in spontaneous fission
,” Am. J. Phys.
49
, 1162
–1171
(1981
), and references therein.46.
C. N.
Wright
, “Radiation protection for safe handling of Cf-252 Sources
,” SRL Report DP- MS-68-51; Health Phys.
15
, Notes 466
–469
(1968
), and references cited there.47.
Related historical material and references can be found at <http://www.aip.org/history>.
48.
Barbara
Goldsmith
, Obsessive Genius: The Inner World of Marie Curie
(W. W. Norton
, NY
, 2005
).49.
Sallie A.
Watkins
, “Lise Meitner and the beta-ray energy controversy: An historical perspective
,” Am. J. Phys.
51
, 551
–553
(1983
).50.
Ernest
Rutherford
, Radioactive Transformations
(Reprint with comments; Yale U.P.
, New Haven, CT
, 2012
).51.
Lawrence
Badash
, “Nuclear physics in Rutherford's laboratory before the discovery of the neutron
,” Am. J. Phys.
51
, 884
–889
(1983
).52.
Alfred
Romer
, “Proton or prouton?: Rutherford and the depths of the atom
,” Am. J. Phys.
65
, 707
–716
(1997
).53.
Fred
Becchetti
, Ramon
Torres-Isea
, Michael
Febbraro
, and Matthew
Bales
, “An advanced laboratory in beta spectroscopy utilizing a solenoid-type magnetic spectrometer
,” Paper AB06, AAPT Announcer, Winter Meeting 2013
, New Orleans, LA.54.
Fred
Becchetti
, Ramon
Torres-Isea
, Michael
Febbraro
, and Jay
Riggins
, “An advanced laboratory in alpha and beta spectroscopy II
,” Paper CI08, AAPT Announcer, Summer Meeting 2014
, Minneapolis, MN.© 2016 American Association of Physics Teachers.
2016
American Association of Physics Teachers
AAPT members receive access to the American Journal of Physics and The Physics Teacher as a member benefit. To learn more about this member benefit and becoming an AAPT member, visit the Joining AAPT page.
