The zeroth theorem of the history of science (enunciated by E. P. Fischer) and widely known in the mathematics community as Arnol’d’s principle states that a discovery (rule, regularity, or insight) named after someone often did not originate with that person. I present five examples from physics: the Lorentz condition μAμ=0 defining the Lorentz gauge of the electromagnetic potentials, the Dirac delta function δ(x), the Schumann resonances of the Earth-ionosphere cavity, the Weizsäcker–Williams method of virtual quanta, and the Bargmann, Michel, and Telegdi equation of spin dynamics. I give sketches of both the actual and reputed discoverers and quote from their “discovery” publications.

1.
E. P.
Fischer
, “
Fremde Federn. Im Gegenteil
,” (very loosely, “Inappropriate Attributions”), Die Welt, Berlin, www.welt.de/data/2006/07/24/970463.html.
2.
J. J.
Loschmidt
, “
Zur Grösse der Luftmolecüle
,”
Sitz. K. Akad. Wiss. Wein: Math–Naturwiss, Kl.
52
,
395
413
(
1865
).
3.
A.
Avogadro
, “
Essai d’une manière de determiner les masses realtives des molecules élémentaires des corps et les proportions selon lesquelles elles entrent dans ces combinaisons
,”
Journal de Physique, de Chimie et d’Histoire naturelle
,
73
,
58
76
(
1811
).
4.
E.
Halley
,
A Synopsis of the Astronomy of Comets
(
John Senex
, London,
1705
), pp.
20
22
.
5.
M. V.
Berry
,“
Three laws of discovery
,” in Quotations at www.phy.bris.ac.uk/people/berry-mv/.
6.
V. I.
Arnol’d
, “
On teaching mathematics
,”
Russ. Math. Surveys
53
(
1
),
229
236
(
1998
).
7.
H. A.
Lorentz
, “
Weiterbildung der Maxwellischen Theorie. Elektronentheorie
,”
Encyklopädie der Mathematischen Wissenschaften
,
V2
:1 (14),
145
280
(
1904
).
8.
H. A.
Lorentz
,
Theory of Electrons
(
Teubner
, Leipzig/Stechert,
1909
) [2nd ed., 1916; reprinted by
Dover
, New York, 1952].
9.
L. V.
Lorenz
, “
Über die Identität der Schwingungen des Lichts mit den elektrischen Strömen
,”
Ann. Phys. Chem.
131
,
243
263
(
1867
)
L. V.
Lorenz
,[“
On the identity of the vibrations of light with electrical currents
,”
Philos. Mag., Ser. 4
,
34
,
287
301
(
1867
)].
10.
E.
Wiechert
, “
Elektrodynamische Elementargesetze
,”
Archives Néerlandaises des Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Ser. 2
,
5
,
549
573
(
1900
).
11.
L. V.
Lorenz
, “
Mémoir sur la théorie de l’élasticité des corps homogènes à élasticité constante
,”
J. Math. (Crelle’s Journal)
58
,
329
351
(
1861
).
12.
L. V.
Lorenz
, “
Die Theorie des Lichtes
,”
Ann. Phys. Chem.
18
,
111
145
(
1863
)
L. V.
Lorenz
,[“
On the theory of light
,”
Philos. Mag., Ser. 4
,
26
,
81
93
, 205–219 (
1863
)].
13.
L. V.
Lorenz
, “
Lysvevægelsen i og uden for en af plane lysbølger belyst kugle
,”
K. Dan. Vidensk. Selsk. Forh.
6
(
6
),
1
62
(
1890
).
14.
H.
Kragh
, “
Ludvig Lorenz and nineteenth century optical theory: The work of a great Danish scientist
,”
Appl. Opt.
30
,
4688
4695
(
1991
).
15.
M.
Pihl
,
Der Physiker L. V. Lorenz, Eine kritische Untersuchung
(
Munkagaard
, Copenhagen,
1939
).
16.
J. E.
Mulligan
, “
Emil Wiechert (1861–1928): Esteemed seismologist, forgotten physicist
,”
Am. J. Phys.
69
,
277
287
(
2001
).
17.
L. V.
Lorenz
, “
Experimentale og theoretiske undersøgelser over legemernes brydningsforhold
,”
K. Dan. Vidensk. Selsk. Forh.
8
,
209
(
1869
),
L. V.
Lorenz
, “
Experimentale og theoretiske undersøgelser over legemernes brydningsforhold
,”
K. Dan. Vidensk. Selsk. Forh.
10
,
485
518
(
1875
);
L. V.
Lorenz
,“
Über die Refractionsconstante
,”
Ann. Phys.
11
,
70
103
(
1880
).
18.
H. A.
Lorentz
, “
Über die Beziehung zwischen der Fortflanzungsgeschwindigkeit des Lichtes under der Körperdichte
,”
Ann. Phys.
9
,
641
664
(
1880
).
19.
H. A.
Lorentz
, “
La théorie Électromagnétique de Maxwell et son application aux corps mouvants
,”
Archives Néerlandaises des Sciences Exactes et Naturelles
XXV
,
363
552
(
1892
).
20.
G. F.
FitzGerald
, “
The ether and the Earth’s atmosphere
,”
Science
13
,
390
(L) (
1889
).
21.
S. G.
Brush
, “
Note on the history of the FitzGerald-Lorentz contraction
,”
Isis
58
,
230
232
(
1967
).
22.
H. A.
Lorentz
,
Versuch einer Theorie der elektrischen und optischen Erscheinungen in bewegten Körpern
(
Brill
, Leiden,
1895
).
24.
J. D.
Jackson
and
L. B.
Okun
, “
Historical roots of gauge invariance
,”
Rev. Mod. Phys.
73
,
663
680
(
2001
).
25.

In 1867, the partial derivative notation was not in use. Ordinary derivatives and partial derivatives were distinguished by context.

26.
J. C.
Maxwell
, “
On a method of making a direct comparison of electrostatic and electromagnetic force; with a note on the electromagnetic theory of light
,”
Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London
158
,
643
657
(
1868
).
27.
H. A.
Lorentz
, “
Maxwell’s Elektromagnetische Theorie
,”
Encyklopädie der Mathematischen Wissenschaften
,
V2
:1 (13),
63
144
(
1904
).
28.
P. A. M.
Dirac
,
The Principles of Quantum Mechanics
(
Oxford U. P.
, Oxford,
1930
), Sec. 22; Sec. 20 (2nd ed., 1935); Sec. 15 (3rd ed., 1947).
29.
P. A. M.
Dirac
, “
The physical interpretation of the quantum mechanics
,”
Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A
113
,
621
641
(
1927
).
30.
O.
Heaviside
,
Electromagnetic Theory
(
Dover
, New York,
1950
), Sec. 249, p.
133
, “
Theory of an impulsive current produced by a continued impressed force
.” First published in The Electrician, March 15, 1895.
31.
O.
Heaviside
,
Electromagnetic Theory
(
Dover
, New York,
1950
), Sec. 267, p.
142
, “
Earth at both terminals. Initial charge at a point. Arbitrary initial state
.” First published in The Electrician, June 7,
1895
.
32.
B.
Van Der Pol
and
H.
Bremmer
,
Operational Calculus
(
Cambridge U. P.
, Cambridge,
1950
), Sec. 5.4.
33.
J. H.
Poynting
, “
On the transfer of energy in the electromagnetic field
,”
Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London
175
,
343
363
(
1884
).
34.
O.
Heaviside
, “
Transmission of energy into a conducting core
,”
The Electrician, June 21, 1884, in Oliver Heaviside
, Electrical Papers, (
Copley
, Boston,
1925
), Vol.
1
, pp.
377
378
.
35.
O.
Heaviside
, “
On the electromagnetic effects due to the motion of electrification through a dielectric
,”
Philos. Mag., Ser. 5
,
27
,
324
339
(
1889
).
See also Oliver Heaviside,
Electrical Papers
(
Copley
, Boston,
1925
), Vol.
2
, pp. 490–499, from The Electrician, 1888–1889, for the fields for v<vp, v=vp, and v>vp.
36.
A. E.
Kennelly
, “
On the elevation of electrically-conducting strata of the earth’s atmosphere
,”
Elec. World & Eng.
39
,
473
(
1902
).
37.
O.
Heaviside
, “Telegraphy: Theory,” in
Encyclopædia Britannica
, 10th ed. (A. and C. Black, London, 1902), Vol.
33
, pp.
213
218
. See p. 215.
38.
B. J.
Hunt
,
The Maxwellians
(
Cornell U. P.
, Ithaca,
1991
).
39.
P. A. M.
Dirac
, “
The fundamantal equations of quantum mechanics
,”
Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A
109
,
642
653
(
1925
).
40.
P. A. M.
Dirac
, “
On the theory of quantum mechanics
,”
Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A
112
,
661
677
(
1926
).
41.
P. A. M.
Dirac
, “
The quantum theory of the emission and absorption of radiation
,”
Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A
114
,
243
265
(
1927
).
42.
P. A. M.
Dirac
, “
The quantum theory of the electron
,”
Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A
117
610
612
, and
P. A. M.
Dirac
, “
The quantum theory of the electron
,”
Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A
118
,
351
361
(
1928
).
43.
P. A. M. Dirac Collected Works
, Vol.
1
:
1924
1948
,
R. H.
Dalitz
, ed. (
Cambridge U. P.
, Cambridge,
1995
).
44.
R. H.
Dalitz
and
R.
Peierls
, “
Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac. 8 August 1902–20 October 1984
,”
Bio. Mem. Fel. R. Soc. London
32
,
138
185
(
1986
).
45.

Use of the height h100km of the ionosphere instead of R6400km leads to different modes of much higher frequencies.

46.
J. J.
Thomson
,
Notes on Recent Researches in Electricity and Magnetism
(
Clarendon Press
, Oxford,
1893
).
47.
W. O.
Schumann
, “
Über die strahlungslosen Eigenschwingungen einer leitenden Kugel, die von Luftschicht und einer Ionosphärenhülle umgeben ist
,”
Z. Naturforsch. A
7
,
149
154
(
1952
).
48.
See
B. P.
Besser
, “
Synopsis of the historical development of Schumann resonances
,”
Radio Sci.
42
,
RS2S02
(1–20) (
2007
). Besser’s paper contains an extensive history and a detailed discussion of Schumann’s work.
49.
For just one example of the power spectrum see
J. D.
Jackson
,
Classical Electrodynamics
(
Wiley
, New York,
1988
), 3rd ed., Fig. 8.9. p.
377
.
50.
G. F.
FitzGerald
, “
On the energy lost by radiation by alternating currents
,” British Association meeting, 1883, reprinted in
The Scientific Writings of George Francis FitzGerald
, edited by
Joseph
Larmor
(
Hodges
, Figgis, Dublin,
1902
), pp.
122
126
, 129.
51.
J.
Larmor
, “
George Francis FitzGerald
,”
Phys. Rev.
12
,
292
313
(
1901
).
52.
H.
Pratt
, “
Nikola Tesla 1856–1943
,”
Proc. IRE
44
(
9
),
1106
1108
(
1956
).
53.
N.
Tesla
, US Patent No. 787,412( April 18,
1905
). The full text can be found at freeinternetpress.com/mirrors/tesla-haarp/.
54.
G. F.
FitzGerald
, “
On the period of vibration of electrical disturbances upon the Earth
,”
Br. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Rep.
63
,
682
(
1893
) [Abstract].
55.
G. F.
FitzGerald
, “
The period of vibration of disturbances of electrification of the earth
,”
Nature (London)
48
(
1248
),
526
(
1893
);
G. F.
FitzGerald
,reprinted in
The Scientific Writings of George Francis FitzGerald
, edited by
Joseph
Larmor
(
Hodges
, Figgis, Dublin,
1902
), pp.
301
302
.
56.
C. F.
von Weizsäcker
, “
Ausstrahlung bei Stössen sehr schneller Elektronen
,”
Zeit. f. Physik
88
,
612
625
(
1934
).
57.
E. J.
Williams
, “
Nature of the high energy particles of penetrating radiation and status of ionization and radiation formulae
,”
Phys. Rev.
45
,
729
730
(L) (
1934
).
58.
E. J.
Williams
, “
Correlation of certain collision problems with radiation theory
,”
K. Dan. Vidensk. Selsk. Mat. Fys. Medd.
12
(4),
1
50
(
1935
).
59.
E.
Fermi
, “
Über die Theorie des Stosses zwischen Atomen und elektrisch geladen Teilchen
,”
Zeit. f. Physik
29
,
315
327
(
1924
).
60.
E.
Fermi
, “
Sulla quantizzatione del gas perfetto monoatomico
,”
Rend. Lincei
3
,
145
149
(
1926
);
E.
Fermi
,“
Zur Quantelung des Idealen Einatomigen Gases
,”
Zeit. f. Physik
36
,
902
912
(
1926
).
61.
E.
Fermi
, “
Tentativo di una teoria dei raggiβ
,”
Nuovo Cimento
11
,
1
19
(
1934
);
E.
Fermi
,“
Versuch einer Theorie der β-Strahlen
,”
Zeit. f. Physik
88
,
161
171
(
1934
).
62.
E.
Fermi
,
Collected Papers
, Vols.
1 and 2
,
E.
Segrè
, chm. Ed. Bd. (
University of Chicago Press
, Chicago,
1962–1965
).
63.
E.
Segrè
,
Enrico Fermi: Physicist
(
University of Chicago Press
, Chicago,
1970
).
64.
C. F.
von Weizsäcker
, “
Über Elementumwandlungen im Inneren der Sterne
,”
Phys. Zeit.
38
,
176
191
(
1937
);
C. F.
von Weizsäcker
, “
Über Elementumwandlungen im Inneren der Sterne
,”
Phys. Zeit.
39
,
633
646
(
1938
).
65.
See, for example,
C. F.
von Weizsäcker
,
The Unity of Nature
, translated by
F. J.
Zucker
(
Farrar Straus Giroux
, New York,
1980
).
66.
See, for example,
C. F.
von Weizsäcker
,
The Politics of Peril: Economics, Society and the Prevention of War
, translated by
M.
Shaw
(
Seabury Press
, New York,
1978
).
67.
E. J.
Williams
and
G. E.
Roberts
, “
Evidence of transformation of mesotrons into electrons
,”
Nature (London)
145
,
102
103
(
1940
).
68.
N.
Bohr
, “
The penetration of atomic particles through matter
,”
K. Dan. Vidensk. Selsk. Mat. Fys. Medd.
18
(8),
1
144
(
1948
).
69.
E. J.
Williams
, “
Applications of ordinary space-time concepts in collision problems and relation of classical theory to Born’s approximation
,”
Rev. Mod. Phys.
17
,
217
226
(
1945
).
70.
P. M. S.
Blackett
, “Evan James Williams,” Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society London 5 (15),
386
406
(
1947
).
71.
E. J.
Williams
, “
Applications of the method of impact parameter in collisions
,”
Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A
139
,
163
186
(
1933
).
72.

Williams's first application is to the ionization of atoms, followed by electrodistintegration of nuclei, bremsstrahlung, pair production by photons on nuclei, e+ee+ee+e, and “bremsstrahlung” by photons on electrons or nuclei.

73.
V.
Bargmann
,
L.
Michel
, and
V. L.
Telegdi
, “
Precession of the polarization of particles moving in a homogeneous electromagnetic field
,”
Phys. Rev. Lett.
2
,
435
436
(
1959
).
74.
L. H.
Thomas
, “
The motion of the spinning electron
,”
Nature (London)
117
,
514
(
1926
).
75.
L. H.
Thomas
, “
Recollections of the Discovery of the Thomas Precessional Frequency
,” in
High Energy Spin Physics – 1982
, edited by
G. M.
Bunce
(
American Institute of Physics
, New York,
1983
), pp.
4
5
. A delightful short reminiscence.
76.
L. H.
Thomas
, “
The kinematics of an electron with an axis
,”
Philos. Mag.
3
,
1
22
(
1927
).
77.
L. H.
Thomas
, “
The paths of ions in the cyclotron, I, II
,”
Phys. Rev.
54
,
580
588
, 588–598 (
1938
).
78.
P. J.
Price
, “
Llewellyn H. Thomas
,”
Phys. Today
47
(
9
),
115
116
(
1994
).
79.
See selected bibliography in
J. R.
Klauder
, “
Valentine Bargmann
,” N. A. S. Bio. Mem., www.nasonline.org/site/PageServer?pagename=MEMOIRS-A.
80.
L.
Michel
, “
Interaction between four half spin particles and the decay of the mu meson
,”
Proc. Phys. Soc., London, Sect. A
63
,
514
531
(
1950
).
81.
M.
Gell-Mann
and
V. L.
Telegdi
, “
Consequences of charge independence for nuclear reactions involving photons
,”
Phys. Rev.
91
,
169
174
(
1953
).
82.
J. L.
Friedman
and
V. L.
Telegdi
, “
Nuclear emulsion evidence for parity nonconservation in the decay chain π+μ+e+
,”
Phys. Rev.
105
,
1681
1682
(L) (
1957
).
83.
N.
Cabibbo
 et al., “
Valentine Louis Telegdi
,”
Phys. Today
59
(
7
),
66
67
(
2006
).
84.

I put FitzGerald’s name second because he treated only the lowest resonant mode.

85.
B. W.
Montague
, “
Polarized beams in high energy storage rings
,”
Phys. Rep.
113
,
1
96
(
1984
).
86.
A. W.
Chao
and
M.
Tigner
,
Handbook of Accelerator Physics and Engineering
(
World Scientific
, Singapore,
1999
).
87.
R. K.
Merton
, “
The Matthew effect in science
,”
Science
159
,
56
63
(
1968
);
[PubMed]
R. K.
Merton
,“
The Matthew effect in science, II
,”
Isis
79
,
606
623
(
1988
).
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